Religious Revolution MCQ Questions and Answers

Sol. The Lodi dynasty fell in 1526 with the First Battle of Panipat, marking the beginning of Babur’s rule in India and the establishment of the Mughal Empire. Guru Nanak (1469–1539) was actively preaching during this period, making him a contemporary to this significant political transition. Dadu Dayal (1544–1603) and Tyagaraja (1767–1847) lived much later and thus were not contemporaries of the fall of the Lodi dynasty or Babur’s conquest. Hence, only Guru Nanak was preaching during that historical phase.

Sol. The Second Sangam is traditionally associated with the composition of early Tamil grammar and literature, and Tolkappiyam, the oldest extant Tamil grammar text, is linked with this period. The Third Sangam saw the development of epic literature such as Silappadikaram. The First Buddhist Council, held shortly after Buddha’s death, led to the compilation of the Tripitaka (three baskets of teachings). The Third Buddhist Council, convened during Ashoka’s reign, included the addition of the Abhidhamma Pitaka to the canonical texts. The pairings correctly reflect the historical and literary developments associated with each entry.

Sol. In Hindu tradition, ascetics (sannyasis) are often seen as renouncers who leave worldly life entirely and are generally considered to exist outside the formal structure of society. They aim for personal liberation and often disengage from social duties. In contrast, Jain ascetics, though they also renounce worldly life, maintain an active yet disciplined connection with society through alms-taking (bhiksha) and teaching. Their renunciation involves interaction with the lay community, who support them and learn from them, thus maintaining a symbiotic relationship within the social fabric.

Sol. In Buddhism, the Doctrine of Karma refers to the ethical principle that a person’s intentional actions (karma) directly influence their future. This doctrine teaches that good deeds lead to favorable outcomes, either in this life or future rebirths, while bad deeds result in suffering. Unlike the concept of predestination or the rigid justification of social inequalities, Buddhist karma emphasizes moral responsibility and personal agency. It differs from the Gita’s notion of duty without attachment to results, focusing instead on the intentional moral quality of actions and their consequences.

Sol. The Buddhist Doctrine of Karma is grounded in the idea that one’s actions have inevitable consequences, meaning a person “reaps what he sows.” This leads to the belief that each individual is the architect of their own destiny through their actions. Furthermore, in Buddhism, divine intervention through prayer is not emphasized as a means to alter one’s karmic path; instead, moral conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom shape one’s future. Therefore, all the listed statements reflect the essential principles of the Buddhist view of Karma.

Sol. Both Hinduism and Buddhism share foundational concepts such as the law of Karma and the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara). While their interpretations and practices may differ, these ideas are central to both religions. Buddhism, however, diverges in terms of theistic structure and rejects the Hindu pantheon and ritualistic aspects, as well as the caste system. The missionary zeal seen in Buddhism is not a characteristic feature of early Hinduism.

Sol. Kanheri, located in present-day Mumbai, Maharashtra, is known as the largest monastic complex in western India, comprising around 130 excavated caves. These caves were used as monasteries, prayer halls, and living quarters by Buddhist monks and served as a major site of Buddhist learning and worship, particularly between the 1st century BCE and 10th century CE. Ajanta and Karle are also significant, but they contain fewer caves in comparison.

Sol. The Bodhisattva Doctrine is a key feature of Mahayana Buddhism. It emphasizes the ideal of the Bodhisattva — an enlightened being who, out of compassion, chooses to remain in the cycle of birth and death to help others attain enlightenment. This contrasts with Theravada (often associated with Hinayana), which emphasizes individual liberation (Arhat ideal). Vajrayana also reveres Bodhisattvas, but the doctrine originates within Mahayana.

Sol. Emperor Ashoka had rock-cut caves carved at Barabar and Nagarjuni hills in Bihar during the 3rd century BCE and donated them to the Ajivika sect, a heterodox religious group that was contemporaneous with Buddhism and Jainism. These caves are among the earliest examples of Indian rock-cut architecture and show Ashoka’s support for various religious traditions beyond Buddhism.

Sol. Makkhali Gosala was the founder of the Ajivika sect, a heterodox philosophical movement in ancient India. He was a contemporary of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. The Ajivikas believed in niyati (fate or determinism) as the supreme force governing all events, thereby denying the role of free will or moral action (karma). This rigid determinism distinguished the Ajivika philosophy from both Jainism and Buddhism.

Sol. The split in Jainism into the Digambaras (“sky-clad”) and Svetambaras (“white-clad”) arose mainly from differences in practice, particularly regarding monastic clothing. Bhadrabahu, a prominent Jain monk, led a migration to the south during a famine, where his followers continued the practice of complete nudity, which they believed reflected the original teachings of Mahavira. Those who remained in the north began to accept the practice of wearing white garments. This led to a formal division into Digambaras, who rejected clothing, and Svetambaras, who accepted it.

Sol. Ajatshatru was the ruler of Magadha at the time of the Mahaparinirvana (death) of Gautama Buddha around 483 BCE. He was a significant patron of Buddhism and is credited with convening the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha to compile and preserve the teachings of the Buddha. His reign marked a pivotal phase in the consolidation of Buddhism as a religious movement.

Sol. Buddhism appealed to the mercantile class for several reasons. Its emphasis on ethical conduct, personal responsibility, and detachment resonated with their lifestyle. Unlike the Brahmanical order, which demanded expensive rituals and maintained caste-based restrictions, Buddhism was egalitarian and allowed for individual merit, making it accessible and appealing to traders and urban professionals who valued rational, practical paths to spiritual growth without ritual complexity.

Sol. Buddhism explicitly rejects the idea of divine intervention in achieving salvation. According to Buddhist philosophy, enlightenment or nirvana is attained through individual effort, right understanding, and moral discipline — not through the grace of gods. It challenges Brahmanical orthodoxy, de-emphasizes Vedic authority, and presents a practical, self-reliant path to liberation based on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. Therefore, divine intervention is not an aspect of Buddhist belief.

Sol. A distinguishing feature of Buddhism is the doctrine of the Middle Path, which rejects both the extremes of indulgence in sensual pleasures and harsh asceticism. This was based on Gautama Buddha’s own experience and formed a foundational principle of his teachings. While both Jainism and Buddhism believe in karma, reject Vedic authority, and advocate ahimsa (non-injury), Jainism is particularly known for extreme asceticism, which Buddhism explicitly avoids.

Sol. Jainism’s emphasis on ahimsa (non-violence), truthfulness, and ethical conduct resonated with the mercantile class, which valued peace and stability — essential for the smooth functioning of trade and business. Unlike Brahmanical rituals that were costly and caste-bound, Jainism offered a practical and disciplined way of life that supported economic activity without imposing ritualistic burdens. This made it particularly attractive to traders and merchants.

Sol. The dates of Lord Buddha’s birth (c. 563 BCE) and death or Mahaparinirvana (c. 483 BCE) are traditionally derived from the Sri Lankan chronicles Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa. These texts, written in Pali, provide detailed historical accounts of the life of Buddha and the development of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka. They remain critical sources for dating events in early Buddhist history.

Piprahawa, a village in Basti district of Uttar Pradesh) Sol. Among the options listed, the identification of Kapilavastu — the childhood home of Gautama Buddha — with the site at Piprahawa in the Basti district of Uttar Pradesh is the most recent and significant archaeological discovery. Excavations have yielded relics and inscriptions supporting the claim. Earlier discoveries, such as the Lumbini pillar and finds at Bharhut and Sanghol, predate this identification.

Sol. Gautama Buddha deliberately refrained from engaging in metaphysical or speculative discussions about God, soul, or life after death, considering them irrelevant to the attainment of enlightenment and the cessation of suffering. His teachings focused on practical aspects of human existence, such as the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. He emphasized empirical experience and ethical living over abstract speculation, as such inquiries were seen as distractions from the path to liberation.

Sol. Nalanda, Vikramshila, and similar institutions were originally established as viharas or Buddhist monasteries. Over time, they evolved into renowned centers of learning where monks received advanced education in Buddhist philosophy, logic, medicine, astronomy, and other disciplines. Though they later attracted students from various regions and religions, their foundational identity remained rooted in monastic and Buddhist education, rather than as secular universities in the modern sense.

Sol. All three statements accurately reflect Jain doctrine. According to Jainism, karma is a subtle matter that binds the soul and causes its bondage and suffering. The ultimate goal is to annihilate karma, and this is best achieved through intense penance (tapas), ethical conduct, and self-restraint. Jain metaphysics holds that every entity, down to the smallest particle, possesses a soul (jiva) with consciousness. The path to liberation lies in shedding karmic matter through right knowledge, right faith, and right conduct.

certain practices by the Vajjian monks of Vaishali) Sol. The Second Buddhist Council was held around 383 BCE at Vaishali, approximately a century after the Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana. The main purpose was to resolve disputes related to the monastic code of discipline. The Vajjian monks had introduced ten controversial practices, including handling money and eating after noon, which were considered deviations from the original Vinaya rules. The Council reaffirmed strict adherence to the early monastic rules.

Sol. Saddharmapundarika Sutra, also known as the Lotus Sutra, is one of the most important and representative texts of Mahayana Buddhism. It presents the idea of the One Vehicle (Ekayana), emphasizes universal salvation, the Bodhisattva ideal, and the eternal nature of the Buddha. It includes symbolic parables, visionary cosmology, and encourages compassion and enlightenment for the benefit of all beings — all key features of Mahayana doctrine.

Sol. The order of Buddhist nuns (Bhikkhuni Sangha) began with the admission of Mahaprajapati Gautami, the Buddha’s stepmother and foster mother. Initially reluctant, the Buddha was persuaded by his disciple Ananda to allow women to join the monastic order. This significant development marked the formal beginning of the female monastic tradition in Buddhism, though it was accompanied by specific additional rules (Garudhammas) for the Bhikkhunis.

Sol. Dignaga is regarded as the founder of Buddhist logic and epistemology and is often referred to as the “Father of Medieval Nyaya.” He systematized Buddhist logic through his foundational work Pramāṇa-samuccaya, which laid the groundwork for later developments in Indian logic. His ideas were further developed by his successor, Dharmakirti. Dignaga’s contributions significantly influenced both Buddhist and non-Buddhist logical traditions in India.

Sol. Nagarjuna is known as the Einstein of India primarily because he propounded the theory of Sunyavada, which some scholars draw parallels to Einstein’s theory of relativity in its radical and revolutionary impact on understanding reality.

Here’s why the other options are less accurate or the primary reason:

Like Einstein he had a rare insight into the nature of the universe: While true, this is a general statement and doesn’t pinpoint the specific reason for the comparison. Many great thinkers have had profound insights.

He was one of the greatest physicists of all time: Nagarjuna was a philosopher and the founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism. While his ideas touched upon the nature of reality, he was not a physicist in the modern scientific sense.

He was a great dialectician: Nagarjuna was indeed a brilliant dialectician, skillfully using logic to deconstruct established philosophical views. However, the “Einstein of India” epithet is more specifically linked to the revolutionary nature of his core philosophical contribution.

The comparison arises from the way both thinkers introduced concepts that fundamentally challenged and expanded the understanding of reality in their respective domains. Einstein’s theory of relativity revolutionized our understanding of space, time, gravity, and the universe at a macroscopic level. Similarly, Nagarjuna’s Sunyavada, or the “emptiness” doctrine, radically reinterpreted the nature of existence, asserting that phenomena lack inherent, independent existence and are empty of intrinsic essence. This revolutionary perspective on reality, with its far-reaching implications, is the key reason for the comparison, highlighting the profound and paradigm-shifting nature of their ideas.

Sol. When Buddhism was introduced to China (around the 1st century CE), it encountered established traditions like Confucianism and Daoism, both of which were influential in shaping Chinese culture and religious thought. Thus, the statement that there were no rival religions is inaccurate. The other reasons — scholarly advocacy, moral example of Buddhist monks, and state patronage — genuinely contributed to Buddhism’s acceptance and spread in China.

Sol. Zen Buddhism, a school of Mahayana Buddhism that emerged in China as Chan and later spread to Japan, emphasizes zazen (seated meditation) as the central practice for achieving satori (sudden enlightenment). Unlike scholastic or ritualistic paths, Zen focuses on direct experience and mindfulness, often through meditation, paradoxical anecdotes (koans), and personal insight. This focus made it particularly appealing to the Japanese warrior class (samurai) for its emphasis on discipline and mental clarity.

Sol. Acharya Vasubandhu, a 4th–5th century CE Buddhist scholar, is believed to have visited Nepal to spread the teachings of the Yogacara (Vijnanavada) school, which he co-founded with his brother Asanga. He was instrumental in the development of Mahayana philosophy, especially in formulating theories on consciousness and perception. His visit to Nepal was part of broader efforts to propagate Mahayana Buddhism across the Himalayan region.

Sol. In Buddhist architecture, a Chaitya refers to a prayer hall or shrine with a stupa at one end, used for congregational worship. It is a sacred space where devotees could gather, often featuring a vaulted interior. A Stupa, on the other hand, is a solid hemispherical structure that serves as a funeral monument, often enshrining relics of the Buddha or other saints. While both are religious, their purposes and architectural functions differ — one being a place of worship, the other a commemorative structure.

Sol. The Vinaya texts form part of the Buddhist Canon and deal with monastic discipline, rules for monks and nuns. Mahayana texts focus heavily on prajna (wisdom), which is a key element of Mahayana philosophy, emphasizing insight into emptiness (śūnyatā). Sutras on transmigration include teachings on pratītya-samutpāda (dependent origination), which explains the cycle of birth and rebirth through twelve causal links. However, Visuddhimagga, a renowned Theravāda text by Buddhaghosa, is not a “colonial” text but a classical meditation manual from the 5th century CE. Hence, only statements 1, 3, and 4 are correct.

Sol. This statement is incorrect as it misrepresents Buddhist philosophy. Buddhism fundamentally denies the existence of a permanent soul (anatta or anatman), asserting that what we consider the “self” is a combination of impermanent aggregates. Jainism, in contrast, believes in the existence of a permanent soul (jiva) that undergoes karmic bondage and liberation. Therefore, the point regarding the soul is not a religious difference; rather, it’s inverted. The other listed differences between the two are valid.

Sol. Early Buddhist texts refer to Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, as Nigantha Nataputta. This name reflects his status as a leader of the Niganthas (literally “free from bonds”) and identifies him by his clan (Nata) and family background. The Pali Canon often records debates between the Buddha and the followers of Nigantha Nataputta, highlighting the religious milieu of the time.

Sol. The idea of monastic order: While ascetic traditions existed in India before Buddhism, the highly structured and organized monastic order (Sangha) with its specific rules (Vinaya) for monks and nuns is widely considered a distinct development initiated by the Buddha. While influenced by the broader ascetic environment, its formal structure was a novel contribution of Buddhism. The emphasis on purity of body and right conduct: These ethical principles were prevalent in Brahmanical thought, emphasizing ritual purity and righteous living. Buddhism adopted and integrated these concepts into its ethical framework (Sila), adapting them to its own philosophical goals. Thus, this was a borrowed concept.

The concept of Nirvana: The term “Nirvana” existed in pre-Buddhist Indian traditions, signifying liberation. However, the Buddhist understanding of Nirvana, its nature, and the path to achieving it differed significantly from Brahmanical concepts of liberation (Moksha). While the term and the general aspiration for liberation were present, the specific Buddhist interpretation was unique. However, the underlying concept of liberation was a shared concern.

Belief in Samsara and Karma: The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (Samsara) and the law of action and consequence (Karma) were fundamental tenets of Hinduism/Brahmanism long before the emergence of Buddhism. Buddhism adopted these core principles as the foundation for its understanding of suffering and the path to liberation. Thus, this was a borrowed belief.

Considering these analyses, the monastic order, with its distinct structure and rules established by the Buddha, is the concept least directly “borrowed” in its fully formed state. While influenced by the ascetic environment, it was a significant innovation of early Buddhism.

Sol. All four hills mentioned are considered sacred in Jainism. Shatrunjaya (Saturn Jayagiri) in Gujarat is one of the holiest pilgrimage sites for the Jains. Urjayanta (Urjayant Ogiri) in Tripura holds Jain associations in ancient regional traditions. Arbudagiri (Mount Abu) in Rajasthan is famous for the Dilwara Temples, major centers of Jain worship. Chandragiri, located at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka, is a historically significant site with inscriptions and monuments related to early Jain monks. These hills are integral to the Jain religious landscape. Would you like the next solution (S37) as well?

Sol. While both Buddhism and Jainism rejected the authority of the Vedas, it is incorrect to say that both were agnostic. Buddhism can be described as agnostic regarding metaphysical issues like the existence of God or soul. Jainism, however, is not agnostic; it affirms the existence of individual souls (jivas) and liberated beings (Tirthankaras) who are venerated, although it does not posit a creator god. Therefore, agnosticism is not a shared trait between the two, making this the point of dissimilarity.

Sol. The Second Buddhist Council, held around 383 BCE at Vaishali, was the most significant event marking the centenary of the Buddha’s parinirvana. It was convened to address disciplinary disputes, especially the ten points of monastic conduct raised by the Vajjian monks. The purpose was to preserve the purity of the Vinaya (monastic code). This council did not involve the compilation of teachings or the formation of Mahayana and Hinayana, which occurred later.

Sol. The correct answer is The destruction of their temples by the foreign invaders and others. Here’s why:

The assimilative power of Hinduism: Over time, many Jain principles and practices were absorbed into Hinduism, reducing Jainism’s distinctiveness and drawing followers back into the Hindu fold.

The extremism of its ethical code and religious discipline: The strict asceticism and rigorous ethical code of Jainism proved difficult for many to adhere to consistently, limiting its widespread appeal.

The influence and popularity of Shaiva and Vaishnava saints in the South: The rise of influential Shaiva and Vaishnava saints and their devotional movements in South India significantly impacted the religious landscape, drawing away potential Jain converts and weakening Jainism’s hold in the region. While there might have been instances of temple destruction, it was not a primary or gradual factor in the overall decline of Jainism across India. The other three options represent more significant and long-term reasons for its reduced prominence.

Sol. The earliest epigraphic evidence of the Buddha’s birthplace comes from the Rummindei Pillar Inscription, erected by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. It identifies Lumbini (then called Rummindei) as the place where the Buddha was born and records Ashoka’s visit. The inscription also grants tax exemptions to the village, signifying its sanctity. This archaeological find confirms the historicity of Lumbini as Buddha’s birthplace.

Sol. According to Svetambara Jain tradition, Mallinatha, the 19th Tirthankara, was a woman named Mallī, born as a princess. This distinguishes Svetambaras from Digambaras, who maintain that all Tirthankaras were male, as they believe a woman cannot attain liberation without first being reborn as a man. Mallinatha’s recognition as a female Tirthankara is a key doctrinal distinction between the two sects.

Sol. Chaityas, during the early phase of Buddhism, were large prayer halls used for religious congregations and worship. These structures often housed a stupa at one end and had a nave with side aisles for devotees to walk around as part of the ritual. While they were sacred spaces, they were not temples in the modern sense, nor were they primarily meditation halls. Their architectural design was meant to accommodate collective worship rather than solitary practices or social functions.

Sol. The Lingayat Movement was founded in the 12th century by Basava (also known as Basavanna) in Karnataka. He rejected caste hierarchy, Vedic rituals, and idol worship, promoting the worship of Lord Shiva in the form of a linga. The movement emphasized social equality, devotion (bhakti), and moral living. Basava’s teachings were compiled in poetic form known as Vachanas, which were instrumental in spreading the Lingayat faith.

Sol. Lord Buddha is referred to as the “Light of Asia”, a title popularized by Sir Edwin Arnold’s 19th-century poem The Light of Asia, which presented the life and teachings of Buddha in a poetic form to Western audiences. This title reflects the immense spiritual and philosophical influence of the Buddha across Asia and beyond, as a beacon of wisdom, peace, and enlightenment.

Sol. The Eightfold Path in Buddhism comprises:

1. Right View
   2. Right Intention
   3. Right Speech
   4. Right Action
   5. Right Livelihood
   6. Right Effort
   7. Right Mindfulness
   8.Right Concentration
   There is no “Right desire” in the Eightfold Path, as desire (tanha) is considered the root cause of suffering according to the Four Noble Truths. Hence, the path aims to eliminate desire, not endorse it.

Sol. According to Jain tradition, Rishabhadeva is regarded as the first Tirthankara of the present age (Avasarpini). He is believed to have introduced social institutions like agriculture, law, and marriage. His name is mentioned in ancient Jain texts and also finds reference in Hindu scriptures like the Bhagavata Purana, which highlights his revered status in Indian religious traditions.

Sol. Therigatha is a collection of verses composed by early Buddhist nuns, forming part of the Pali Canon of Theravāda Buddhism, not Jain literature. In contrast, Acarangasutra, Sutrakritanga, and Brihat Kalpasutra are foundational Jain texts written in Prakrit and form part of the Jain Agamas. They deal with monastic conduct, philosophy, and rules for ascetics, and are attributed to the early phases of Jain scriptural tradition.

Sol. All three listed kings were known patrons of Jainism: 1.Srenika Bimbisara, the king of Magadha, is believed to have been a follower or sympathizer of Jain teachings. 2.Chandragupta Maurya, after abdicating the throne, became a Jain monk and is traditionally believed to have migrated to Karnataka with Bhadrabahu. 3.Kharavela, the ruler of Kalinga (1st century BCE), was a devout Jain and is known from the Hathigumpha inscription, which highlights his support for Jainism and its monastic institutions.

Sol. The concept of Anuvrata belongs to Jainism and refers to small vows meant for householders. These are simplified versions of the five major vows (Mahavratas) undertaken by Jain monks, adapted to the layperson’s lifestyle. They include non-violence, truth, non-stealing, celibacy, and non-possession to a limited extent, allowing lay followers to practice Jain principles without renouncing worldly life.

 Sol. Buddhism had a profound impact on Indian culture:

It challenged caste distinctions and allowed women and Shudras to join the Sangha, thus removing religious barriers.
Though Buddhism initially used Pali and Prakrit, its spread later stimulated Sanskrit literary development, especially in Mahayana texts.
It nurtured Indian art and architecture, particularly at sites like Sanchi, Bharhut, Bodhgaya, and Amravati.
Although early Buddhism was non-theistic, idol worship became prominent in Mahayana Buddhism with the worship of Bodhisattvas.
Residential universities such as Nalanda and Vikramashila flourished under Buddhist patronage, becoming major centers of learning.
Hence, all the listed statements are correct.

Sol. This statement is not considered a valid reason for the rapid spread of Jainism among the trading community. Jainism advocates strict limits on property and material possessions, including wealth from any source, not just landed property. The other reasons — ease of practicing Ahimsa (non-injury) in non-agricultural professions, the spirit of frugality, and generous donations to temples — genuinely contributed to the religion’s appeal among merchants. Thus, interpreting property limitation narrowly to exclude trade wealth does not align with Jain ethical teachings.

Sol. Vardhaman Mahavir, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha. Both were active in the 6th century BCE and preached in the same geographical regions of Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh. They shared similar societal contexts and addressed common philosophical concerns, although their doctrines differed significantly. Parsvanath preceded Mahavira by about two centuries, while Bhadrabahu and Kalashoka came later.

Sol. The Svetambara Jain Agamas were finally compiled and edited in a council held at Vallabhi (modern-day Gujarat) in the 5th–6th century CE. This council, presided over by Devardhigani Kshamashramana, sought to preserve Jain scriptures in written form due to the fear of losing oral traditions. Vallabhi emerged as a major center of Jain learning during this period, and this council played a crucial role in codifying Svetambara canonical literature.

Sol. Anekantavada is a foundational principle of Jain philosophy, meaning “doctrine of manifold aspects.” It asserts that truth and reality are complex and multifaceted, and no single perspective can claim absolute truth. This principle promotes intellectual tolerance and encourages viewing issues from multiple standpoints. It is closely linked with Syadvada (the theory of conditioned predication) and is unique to Jain epistemology.

Sol. Bimbisara of Magadha and Pradyota of Avanti were both contemporaries of and known to have maintained friendly relations with both Gautama Buddha and Mahavira. Bimbisara was a notable patron of the Buddha and also engaged with Mahavira’s teachings. Pradyota, ruler of Avanti, is also mentioned in both Jain and Buddhist sources as being positively inclined toward both religious leaders. Ajatasatru succeeded Bimbisara but was more aligned with Buddhism after his father’s death, and Prasenjit of Kosala was more prominently associated with Buddhism.

Sol. The Milinda Panho (“Questions of Milinda”) is a famous Pali text presented in the form of a dialogue between King Menander (Milinda), a Indo-Greek ruler, and the Buddhist monk Nagasena. The text explores profound questions about Buddhist doctrine, ethics, and metaphysics. It is considered a classic in Buddhist literature due to its clear exposition of Buddhist philosophy in a question-answer format.

Sol. Asanga is traditionally credited as the founder of the Mahayana school of Buddhism, particularly the Yogachara (Vijnanavada) sub-school. Along with his brother Vasubandhu, Asanga developed key Mahayana philosophical concepts, especially those related to consciousness, perception, and the Bodhisattva path. Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes the ideal of the Bodhisattva and the universal potential for enlightenment.

Sol. Gautama Buddha attained Parinirvana (final nirvana after death) at Kushinagara, located in present-day Uttar Pradesh. This event marks the end of the Buddha’s earthly existence. Kushinagara became one of the four major pilgrimage sites in Buddhism, alongside Lumbini (birth), Bodh Gaya (enlightenment), and Sarnath (first sermon).

Sol. Syadvad is a core doctrine of Jain philosophy closely related to Anekantavada. It means “the theory of conditional predication,” suggesting that all statements are conditionally true from particular perspectives. It promotes intellectual flexibility and non-absolutism, emphasizing that truth is multi-dimensional and context-dependent.

Sol. After the death of Mahavira, leadership of the Jain Sangha passed to his chief disciple Sudharma. He is believed to have lived for several years after Mahavira and played a key role in preserving and transmitting Jain teachings. He was succeeded by Jambu, another prominent disciple, considered the last to attain liberation in the current era.

Sol. Queen Maya, the mother of Gautama Buddha, belonged to the Koliyan dynasty, while his father, Suddhodana, was a king of the Shakya dynasty. The marriage between Maya and Suddhodana represented an alliance between the Shakyas and Koliyas, both ruling clans in the region of present-day southern Nepal and northern India. Hence, though Buddha was born in the Shakya clan, his maternal lineage traced to the Koliyan dynasty.

Sol. Emperor Kanishka of the Kushan dynasty is known to have depicted Buddha on his coins, particularly after his conversion to Mahayana Buddhism. These coins often display Buddha in a standing posture with inscriptions in Greek or Bactrian script. Kanishka was a significant patron of Buddhism and convened the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir, promoting the religion’s spread and development.

Sol. In Buddhist rock-cut architecture, a Chaitya is a prayer hall or place of worship, typically containing a stupa at one end and featuring a vaulted structure with an apsidal plan. A Vihara, by contrast, is a residential monastery used as a living and meditating space for monks. It is generally a square or rectangular hall with small cells around the periphery. The functional and architectural distinction between the two is well established in early Buddhist structures.

Sol. The Mahasamghika school of Buddhism arose in Vaishali following the Second Buddhist Council around 383 BCE. Disagreements over monastic discipline led to a schism in the Sangha, with the Mahasanghikas forming a more liberal group compared to the orthodox Sthaviras. This was the first major sectarian division in Buddhism and laid the foundation for later developments, including Mahayana Buddhism.

Sol. The greatest contribution of Sri Lanka to the Buddhist world is the preservation of the Pali Canon in its complete form. The Tripitaka (Tipitaka), which includes the Vinaya, Sutta, and Abhidhamma Pitakas, was first committed to writing in the 1st century BCE at the Fourth Buddhist Council in Sri Lanka, held at Alu Vihara during the reign of King Vattagamani Abhaya. This act ensured the survival and propagation of Theravāda Buddhism across Asia.

Sol. In Buddhism, Nirvana is best described as the extinction of desire, hatred, and ignorance, which are the root causes of suffering as outlined in the Four Noble Truths. It is not the annihilation of the self, as Buddhism denies a permanent self (anatta), nor is it a mental state beyond comprehension. Nirvana represents freedom from the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara) and the attainment of ultimate peace and liberation.

Sol. After attaining enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon at Sarnath, near Varanasi. This sermon is known as the “Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta” or “Turning of the Wheel of Law”, where he introduced the core principles of Buddhism, including the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, to his first five disciples.

Sol. In Buddhism, the Patimokkha is a code of monastic discipline consisting of rules that monks and nuns must follow. It is recited fortnightly in the monastic assembly (uposatha) to maintain order and ethical conduct within the Sangha (monastic community). The Patimokkha forms part of the Vinaya Pitaka in the Tripitaka.

Sol. Vardhamana Mahavira is regarded as the 24th and last Tirthankara in the Jain tradition. He did not found Jainism but is credited with reforming and systematizing the pre-existing faith, which had been shaped by earlier Tirthankaras, notably Parsvanath, the 23rd. Jain doctrine holds that these spiritual teachers have existed in every time cycle.

Sol. The Fourth Buddhist Council was held in Kashmir under the patronage of Kanishka, the Kushan emperor, in the 1st or 2nd century CE. This council marked the formal split between Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism. It was significant for the compilation of Mahayana doctrines and the promotion of Sanskrit as a medium for Buddhist scholarship.

Sol. Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon at Sarnath, shortly after attaining enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. This event is called the “Dhammacakkappavattana” or “Turning of the Wheel of Dharma”. It marked the beginning of his public ministry, where he explained the Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path to his first five disciples.

Sol. The Nagarjunakonda stupa is renowned for its sculpted panels depicting episodes from the Buddha’s life. These include:

1.Gods praying to the Bodhisattva before his earthly birth,
2.The white elephant dream symbolizing Buddha’s conception, and
3.The birth of the Buddha under a flowering sal tree (not a teak tree, but the artistic representation remains accepted).
However, statement 4 — that the entire animal world turned out to worship the Buddha — is an exaggeration and not a characteristic feature of these panels. The animals are depicted symbolically, not as literal worshippers. Hence, only statement 4 is incorrect.

Sol. Sarnath was the site where Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon, known as the “Turning of the Wheel of Law” (Dhammacakkappavattana). This sermon laid the foundation of Buddhist teachings and marked the beginning of the Sangha (monastic community).

Sol. The matching of Jain Tirthankaras with their respective cognizance (symbols) is as follows:

A. Shanti Natha – Water jar
B. Malli Natha – Antelope
C. Parswa Natha – Serpent
D. Mahavira – Lion
Hence, the correct code is: 4 1 3 2.

Sol. Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha in the 6th century BCE. Both spiritual leaders preached in the same regions and time, though their teachings and religious systems diverged significantly. Parsvanath preceded Mahavira by about 200 years, while Ashvaghosa and Nagarjuna came centuries later.

Sol. One significant reason for the decline of Buddhism in early medieval India was its assimilation into Hinduism, where Buddha was incorporated as an avatar of Vishnu, especially within Vaishnavism. This blurring of religious lines reduced the distinct identity of Buddhism. Statement 2 is incorrect as most Central Asian invaders, like the Kushans, often supported or patronized Buddhism. Statement 3 is also incorrect; while Gupta rulers were largely Vaishnavite, they were generally tolerant of Buddhism and not strongly opposed to it. Therefore, only statement 1 is correct.

Sol. The correct matching of Mauryan provinces and their capitals is:

1. Uttarapatha – V. Taxila (Northern Province)
   B. Avantiratha – I. Ujjain (Western Province)
   C. Dakshinapatha – II. Suvarnagiri (Southern Province)
   D. Prachya – III. Tosali (Eastern Province)
   E. Central Province – IV. Pataliputra (Capital of the empire)
   Hence, the correct code is: V I II III IV.

Sol. Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha. Both lived and preached in the 6th century BCE. The other options — Nagarjuna (2nd century CE), Kanishka (1st–2nd century CE), and Kautilya (4th century BCE, Mauryan period) — lived after the Buddha’s time.

Sol. Both Buddhism and Jainism: Rejected the authority of the Vedas (statement 2). Denied the efficacy of rituals, especially sacrificial rites promoted by Vedic Brahmanism (statement 3). However, only Buddhism advocated the Middle Path, avoiding extremes of penance and indulgence. Jainism, especially in the Digambara tradition, promoted extreme asceticism, so statement 1 does not apply to both. Correct answer: 2 and 3 only.

 Sol. Common features between Buddhism and Jainism include:

Rejection of the Vedas’ authority (2),
Denial of the efficacy of rituals (3),
Practice of non-violence (Ahimsa) (4).
However, the avoidance of extremes (1) is distinctly Buddhist; Jainism, particularly the Digambara sect, upheld severe asceticism. Therefore, statement 1 is not common to both.
Correct answer: 2, 3 and 4.

Sol. Kharavela, the ruler of Kalinga in the 1st century BCE, was a notable patron of Jainism, as confirmed by the Hathigumpha inscription. He helped in the revival and promotion of Jain practices. However, in the initial stages, Jainism was non-iconic, similar to early Buddhism. The worship of images developed later, especially under the influence of popular devotional practices. Therefore, only the first statement is correct.

Sol. Buddhism rejected the Varna and Jati system, promoting equality and allowing people from all castes, including Shudras and women, to join the Sangha. It challenged the supremacy of Brahmanas by emphasizing merit over birth. However, over time, certain professions like butchery and fishing were discouraged due to the principle of non-violence, which could be seen as regarding certain jobs as low. Hence, statements 2 and 3 are correct.

Sol. The correct matching of Jain Tirthankaras and their birthplaces is:

A. Ajitnath – Ayodhya (4)

B. Vimalnath – Kampilya (3)
C. Shantinath – Hastinapur (2)

D. Parshvanath – Kashi (Varanasi) (1)
Hence, the correct code is: 4 3 2 1.

Sol. Buddhism is characterized by:

Rejection of the authority of the Vedas (2),

Emphasis on individual effort toward liberation rather than dependence on rituals or gods (3).
The Theory of Prakriti and Purusha belongs to Sankhya philosophy, and Jiva and Ajiva are core concepts in Jainism, not Buddhism. Hence, only statements 2 and 3 are correct.

Sol. Jainism is based on the dualistic philosophy of Jiva (conscious soul) and Ajiva (non-living matter), which are eternal and distinct categories. While Jainism does not align with Vedanta, which posits a monistic Brahman, it shares some conceptual similarities with Sankhya, such as dualism, but not fully. It does not reject the concept of the soul — in fact, the soul is central to Jain doctrine. Therefore, statements 3 and 4 are correct.

Sol. During his lifetime, Gautama Buddha was most closely associated with the kingdoms of Kosala and Magadha. He was born in Lumbini, which was under Kosala, and spent significant time in Rajagriha and Nalanda, both in Magadha. Avanti and Gandhara were geographically distant and not directly linked to the Buddha’s life, although they became centers of Buddhism later. Hence, only Kosala and Magadha were directly associated with Buddha’s life.

 Sol.

1.Tabo Monastery, a famous Buddhist monastery, is located in the Spiti Valley of Himachal Pradesh.
2. Lhotsava Lhakhang Temple is not located in the Zanskar Valley; it is actually situated in Nako, Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh.
3. Alchi Temple Complex is correctly located in Ladakh and is known for its Indo-Tibetan art and Buddhist murals.
Thus, pairs 1 and 3 are correctly matched.

 Sol.

1.The Indo-Greek king Menander (Milinda), not “Mahendra,” was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena, as described in Milinda Panha.
2.The term “Hora-shastra”, referring to astrology, reflects Greek influence in Indian astrology.
3.Greeks contributed to astronomy, including methods of calculating eclipses and the concept of parallax, which later entered Indian astronomy through texts like the Surya Siddhanta. ✔
There is no concrete evidence that Greeks introduced the use of curtains in Indian theatre.
So, only statements 1, 2, and 3 are correct.

1.Buddhists in the Deccan were pioneers in the creation of rock-cut Chaityas (like at Bhaja, Karle), and later Hindus and Jains imitated this architectural style, especially in the Ellora and Elephanta caves.
2.The second statement is incorrect because these later rock-cut temples were often constructed at or near the same sites as earlier Buddhist caves, not at distant locations. ✘
Hence, only statement 1 is correct.

Sol.

1.Jains believe that Mahavira was preceded by 23 Tirthankaras, starting with Rishabhanatha.
2.Parshvanatha is recognized as the 23rd Tirthankara, who lived around two centuries before Mahavira.
3.Rishabhanatha was the 1st Tirthankara, not the immediate successor of Mahavira.
Therefore, only statements 1 and 2 are correct.

Sol. Analysis:

1.Truth of Statement I: Historical sources confirm that before attaining enlightenment and establishing his own distinct order, Mahavira spent a period as an ascetic and was associated with the Nirgranthas (meaning “free from bonds”). Therefore, Statement I is true.
2.Truth of Statement II: Parshvanatha (Parsva), the 23rd Tirthankara of Jainism, lived approximately 250 years before Mahavira and is credited with founding a significant ascetic order. The term “Nirgrantha” is associated with the followers of Parshvanatha. Therefore, Statement II is true.
3. Causal Relationship between Statement II and Statement I: While Statement II establishes the historical origin of the Nirgrantha sect, it doesn’t directly and completely explain why Mahavira specifically chose to join this group initially.

• The Nirgranthas were a prominent and influential ascetic tradition in the region during the time of the rise of Buddhism and Mahavira. Their established practices and presence would have naturally attracted individuals seeking an ascetic path.
• Mahavira’s decision to join the Nirgranthas was likely influenced by the prevailing religious and philosophical landscape of his time, where various ascetic groups existed. The Nirgranthas, being a significant one, would have been a natural choice for someone seeking such a life.
• The fact that Parsva founded the sect centuries earlier provides the historical context for its existence, but it doesn’t solely explain Mahavira’s personal decision to join it at that specific point in time. His reasons could have been related to the existing practices and influence of the Nirgranthas during his formative ascetic period.

Conclusion:

Both Statement I and Statement II are factually correct. However, Statement II, while providing historical background, does not serve as the direct and complete explanation for why Mahavira initially joined the Nirgrantha sect. His decision was likely influenced by the contemporary prominence and practices of the group.

Therefore, the correct answer is:

Both the statements are true, but Statement II is not the correct explanation of Statement I.

Sol. The correct matching of Tirthankaras and their birthplaces is:

A. Rishabhanatha – Ayodhya (4)
B. Sambhavnath – Sravasti (3)
C. Padmanabha – Kausambi (2)
D. Parshvanath – Kashi (Varanasi) (1)
Hence, the correct code is: 4 3 2 1.

Sol. The national motto of India, “Satyameva Jayate” (Truth alone triumphs), is derived from the Mundaka Upanishad. It appears in the concluding portion of the text and symbolizes the central value of truth in Indian philosophical tradition. It was adopted as part of the Indian State Emblem in 1950.

Sol. The correct pairings between the characters in List-I and their related objects in List-II are as follows:

3. Vishnu – 3. Dharmachakra Pravartana Mudra: While Vishnu is typically associated with other symbols like the conch, chakra (wheel), mace, and lotus, in some contexts, the Dharmachakra Pravartana Mudra, representing the turning of the wheel of law, can be symbolically linked to his role as a preserver and upholder of cosmic order.
   B. Gautama Buddha – 2. Flask and Rosary: Gautama Buddha is often depicted holding or associated with a flask (sometimes for water) and a rosary (used for counting prayers or mantras), symbolizing his ascetic journey and spiritual practices.
   C. Jina – 1. Kayotsarga Posture: In Jainism, Jinas (Tirthankaras or enlightened beings) are strongly associated with the Kayotsarga posture, a standing meditative pose where the body is held completely still to detach from physical sensations and focus on the soul.
   D. Bodhisattva – 4. Garudadhvaja Maiteya: A Bodhisattva is an individual on the path to Buddhahood who postpones their own enlightenment to help others. Maitreya is a prominent Bodhisattva who is believed to appear as a future Buddha. The “Garudadhvaja Maiteya” likely symbolizes Maitreya with a banner bearing the image of Garuda, which, while more commonly associated with Vishnu, could here represent a symbolic connection to power, protection, or a specific artistic representation.
   Based on these pairings, the correct matching code is 3 2 1 4.

Sol. The correct matching is:

3. Rahul – 3. Buddha’s son
   B. Alara Kalam – 4. The sage who taught meditation to Buddha
   C. Suddhodana – 1. Buddha’s father
   D. Devdatta – 2. Buddha’s cousin
   E. Siddhartha – 5. Buddha’s original name
   Hence, the correct code is: 3 4 1 2 5.

Sol. The symbolic representations are:

A. Birth – 2. Lotus and bull

B. First Sermon – 3. Dharmachakra
C. Nirvana (Enlightenment) – 4. Bodhi tree

D. Parinirvana (Death) – 1. Stupa

2. Hence, the correct code is: 2 3 4 1.

Kanthaka – the horse of Siddhartha (Buddha),
Alara Kalama – a meditation teacher of Buddha,
Channa – Buddha’s charioteer who accompanied him during renunciation,
Goshala Maskariputra – was a rival ascetic and founder of the Ajivika sect, not related to Buddha’s life personally.
So, only statement 4 is not related to Buddha’s life.

Sol. Let’s match the ancient Indian schools of thought or teachers in List-I with their associated philosophies in List-II:

A. Ajit Kesh Kamblin is known for his Materialism (3), advocating that there is no afterlife, consciousness ends with death, and only the four elements are real.
B. Sanjay Vethaliputta is associated with Skepticism or Agnosticism (4). He avoided definitive answers to metaphysical questions, stating “it is not thus, it is not otherwise, it is not both, it is not neither.” While “Materialism-Cynicism” isn’t a perfect fit, the core of his philosophy was a refusal to commit to any specific doctrine.
C. Pakudh Kachayan propounded a form of Atomism (2), suggesting that the world is composed of eternal, uncreated elements that do not interact.
D. Puran Kashyap is associated with Fatalism (1), the belief that all events are predetermined and human free will is an illusion.
Therefore, the correct matching is: A – 3 B – 4 C – 2 D – 1

Now let’s find the code that corresponds to this matching:

• Code 1: A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2 (Correct)
• Code 2: A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4 (Incorrect)
• Code 3: A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4 (Incorrect)
• Code 4: A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4 (Incorrect)

The correct code is 3 4 1 2.