30th June 2025 – Current Affairs

1. Secondary Pollutants Now a Major Contributor to India’s PM2.5 Burden – Environment

Why in News?

A new study by the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA) has revealed that secondary pollutants, particularly ammonium sulphate, now contribute nearly one-third to India’s PM2.5 pollution. This poses a serious challenge for air quality management, especially in cities under the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).

Key Takeaways

What Are Secondary Pollutants?

• Primary Pollutants: Emitted directly from sources (e.g., vehicle exhaust, coal burning)
• Secondary Pollutants: Formed indirectly in the atmosphere when primary pollutants react chemically
  • Example: Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) + Ammonia (NH₃) → Ammonium sulphate
  • Key Secondary PM2.5 Components: Ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate, ozone (O₃)

CREA Study – Major Findings

• Secondary pollutants form up to 34% of PM2.5 mass in India
• In 114 out of 130 NCAP cities, ammonium sulphate made up >30% of total PM2.5
• Coal-fired power plants contribute over 60% of SO₂ emissions, which drive secondary PM2.5 formation
• Emission control compliance is weak:
  • Only a small fraction of plants have installed Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) systems
  • Regulatory enforcement is low, despite FGD being made mandatory in 2015

Impact on NCAP Cities

• NCAP aims to reduce PM2.5 by 20–30% by 2025–26
• Secondary pollutants are undermining progress
• Emission control strategies focus primarily on primary pollutants, neglecting secondary sources

Implications for Public Health & Governance

• PM2.5 penetrates deep into lungs and bloodstream, leading to respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, and premature deaths
• Secondary PM2.5 is more difficult to control since it forms over regional and cross-border scales
• Cities need to go beyond local action plans to include industrial emission control, regional planning, and agriculture reform (ammonia emissions)

Way Forward

Summary

Secondary pollutants, especially ammonium sulphate, now form a major portion of India’s PM2.5 burden, as highlighted by CREA’s 2025 study. With over 60% of SO₂ emissions coming from coal-fired power plants, India’s cities are facing an uphill battle in meeting NCAP targets. Tackling this issue requires a multi-sectoral approach involving industrial regulation, agriculture reforms, and regional coordination. The findings underscore the need to rethink India’s air pollution strategy, shifting focus from just primary emissions to comprehensive air quality management.

Exam Connect – Possible Questions

Prelims

1. Which of the following are secondary air pollutants?
   1. Ozone (O₃)
   2. Ammonium sulphate
   3. Carbon monoxide
   4. Ammonium nitrate
      Choose the correct option:
      A. 1 and 3 only
      B. 1, 2, and 4 only
      C. 2 and 3 only
      D. All of the above
      Answer: B. 1, 2, and 4 only
      
      
2. Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) systems are used to control the emission of:
   A. Carbon dioxide
   B. Methane
   C. Sulphur dioxide
   D. Ozone
   Answer: C. Sulphur dioxide
   
   
3. The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) aims to reduce PM2.5 levels by what percentage by 2025-26?
   A. 10–15%
   B. 15–20%
   C. 20–30%
   D. 25–40%
   Answer: C. 20–30%

Mains

1. Discuss the growing role of secondary pollutants in worsening air quality in India. What policy interventions are necessary to address this challenge?
   
   
2. Critically analyze the progress of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) in India, with reference to emerging data on secondary PM2.5 pollution.
   
   
3. How do coal-fired power plants contribute to secondary air pollution in India? Suggest technological and regulatory measures to control this problem.
   

2. Impact of Climate Change on Global Food Production – AgricuIture

Why in News?

A recent climate impact study published in The Hindu has warned that a 1°C rise in global temperatures could result in a 4% decline in per capita calorie availability by 2100. The study is significant as it includes farmer adaptation strategies in its projections—something earlier studies often overlooked.

Key Takeaways

Temperature Rise & Food Security

• Just a 1°C rise in global temperature could:
  • Reduce calorie availability per capita by 4%
  • Significantly affect staple crop yields including wheat, rice, maize, and soybean

Farmer Adaptation Strategies Considered

Projections:

• Could reduce yield losses by:
  • 23% by 2050
  • 34% by 2100
• However, substantial losses still persist, especially in wheat, maize, and soybean

Crop-wise Impact Analysis

Not Just a Developing Country Problem

• Even developed nations like the United States, Europe, and China will see crop losses
• This challenges the assumption that climate impact is mostly a developing world issue
• Calls for global action in climate-smart farming, agricultural innovation, and cropland planning

Way Forward

Summary

Climate change is no longer a future threat—it is a present reality impacting global food production. A 1°C temperature increase could reduce calorie availability by 4% and significantly impact wheat, maize, rice, and soybean yields across developed and developing nations alike. Even though farmer adaptation (like heat-resistant seeds and revised sowing calendars) can mitigate losses, it won’t be enough. Comprehensive policy measures, agricultural innovation, and global cooperation are essential to protect food security in a warming world.

Exam Connect – Possible Questions

Prelims

1. Which of the following crops is expected to face the least severe global yield loss due to climate change, as per recent studies?
   A. Wheat
   B. Maize
   C. Soybean
   D. Rice
   Answer: D. Rice
   
   
2. Which of the following is a farmer adaptation strategy to cope with climate change?
   1. Use of heat-resistant crop varieties
   2. Genetic engineering for pest resistance
   3. Shifting sowing schedules
   4. Rainwater harvesting
      Choose the correct option:
      A. 1, 2, and 3 only
      B. 1 and 3 only
      C. 2 and 4 only
      D. All of the above
      Answer: D. All of the above
      
      
3. Which region in India is projected to be most affected by declining wheat yields due to climate change?
   A. Southern India
   B. Western India
   C. Northern India
   D. Eastern India
   Answer: C. Northern India

Mains

1. “Climate change poses a multidimensional threat to food security in India.” Discuss the likely impact of rising global temperatures on agricultural productivity and suggest measures for adaptation.
   
   
2. How can climate-smart agriculture help in mitigating the effects of climate change on food production? Evaluate with reference to recent research findings.
   
   
3. “Feeding a warming world: The challenge of climate resilience in global agriculture.” Elaborate.
   
   

3. Review of Project Elephant: India’s Efforts to Protect Its National Heritage Animal – Environment

Why in News?

The Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change recently reviewed progress under Project Elephant (launched in 1992). A key milestone noted was the completion of Phase-I of synchronized elephant population estimation in the Northeastern states, along with an evaluation of conflict mitigation and conservation strategies.

Key Highlights of the Review

Mortality Mitigation

• 73 elephants were killed in train collisions (2019–2024)
• Ministry is conducting surveys of railway tracks to identify and manage elephant-train collision hotspots

Genetic Profiling

• Ongoing efforts to create a DNA database for captive elephants
• Will aid in:
  • Tracking illegal trade
  • Improving health monitoring
  • Scientific conservation planning

Human-Elephant Conflict (HEC)

• Regional action plans in Southern and Northeastern India to manage HEC
• Focus on protecting elephant corridors, which are critical for:
  • Safe migration
  • Reducing encounters with human settlements

About Elephants

Elephant Species Overview

Conservation Status

Key Indian Initiatives for Elephant Conservation

Global Elephant Conservation Efforts

Summary

The review of Project Elephant emphasizes the urgent need to strengthen elephant conservation in India, particularly in light of increasing human-elephant conflicts, habitat fragmentation, and accidental deaths. Initiatives like railway safety mapping, genetic profiling, and regional conflict action plans are critical steps forward. As elephants are ecologically vital and culturally revered, India’s continued commitment to their conservation will shape its biodiversity legacy and global environmental leadership.

Exam Connect – Possible Questions

Prelims

1. Which of the following statements is/are correct about elephants in India?
   1. Indian elephants are listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List.
   2. Elephants are protected under Schedule II of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
   3. India is home to over 50% of the world’s Asian elephants.
      Select the correct answer:
      A. 1 and 2 only
      B. 1 and 3 only
      C. 2 and 3 only
      D. All of the above
      Answer: B. 1 and 3 only
      
      
2. The MIKE Programme, often mentioned in elephant conservation, is associated with:
   A. IUCN
   B. CITES
   C. UNDP
   D. UNESCO
   Answer: B. CITES
   
   
3. Which of the following states has the highest elephant population in India as per the 2017 census?
   A. Kerala
   B. Assam
   C. Karnataka
   D. Tamil Nadu
   Answer: C. Karnataka

Mains

1. “Project Elephant has evolved into a multi-dimensional programme, addressing ecological, social, and technological aspects of wildlife conservation.” Discuss the achievements and challenges of Project Elephant in India.
   
   
2. Examine the causes and consequences of human-elephant conflict in India. What steps can be taken to address this issue effectively.
   
   
3. “In protecting elephants, we are protecting forests, biodiversity, and ourselves.” Elaborate.
   
   

4. India’s Gaps in Gender Equality Metrics: A Political Representation Crisis – Polity

Why in News?

India has slipped to 131st out of 148 countries in the Global Gender Gap Index 2025 released by the World Economic Forum (WEF). While there has been progress in education, health, and economic participation, political empowerment of women has declined, posing a significant barrier to gender equality in governance.

Key Takeaways

Global Gender Gap Index – 2025

• Released by: World Economic Forum (WEF)
• India’s overall rank: 131st out of 148
• Political Empowerment is the lowest-scoring sub-index for India, dragging down its overall rank

Political Representation: The Grim Numbers

33% Reservation for Women – A New Hope?

• Constitution (128th Amendment) Act, 2023
• 33% reservation for women in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies
• Effective from 2029 elections, post delimitation
• Valid for 15 years (till ~2044), raising concerns about long-term commitment

Barriers to Women’s Political Empowerment

Progress Noted in Voter Participation

• Gender gap in voter turnout:
  • 1962: 17% gap
  • 2014 onwards: Reduced to <2%
• Women voters have outnumbered men in many states
• Influenced by:
  • Male migration
  • Focused outreach programmes like Mahila Shakti Kendra

Way Forward – Beyond Reservation

Summary

India’s slide to 131st position in the Global Gender Gap Index 2025 highlights persistent gaps in women’s political representation, despite improvements in voting participation and education. While the 33% reservation law (from 2029) promises change, sustainable gender equality in Indian politics requires deep systemic reforms, party-level transformation, and the creation of institutional pathways that move women from the grassroots to national leadership.

Exam Connect – Possible Questions

Prelims

1. Which organization releases the Global Gender Gap Index?
   A. UN Women
   B. World Economic Forum
   C. World Bank
   D. UNDP
   Answer: B. World Economic Forum
   
   
2. What percentage of seats are to be reserved for women in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies as per the 128th Constitutional Amendment Act?
   A. 25%
   B. 30%
   C. 33%
   D. 50%
   Answer: C. 33%
   
   
3. As per the 2024 data, what is the approximate percentage of women MPs in the 18th Lok Sabha?
   A. 11.5%
   B. 13.6%
   C. 15.2%
   D.18.3%
   Answer: B. 13.6%
   

Mains

1. “Reservation alone is not enough to ensure gender equality in Indian politics.” Discuss in the context of the 33% women’s reservation law and current representation trends.
   
   
2. Examine the systemic barriers to women’s political empowerment in India. Suggest reforms to promote gender parity in political institutions.
   
   
3. “Empowering women in politics is not about numbers, but about influence and leadership.” Evaluate this statement in light of recent developments in India.
   

5. Jostling for Primacy: India’s Strategic Challenge from China in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) – InternationaI Relations

Why in News?

The Parliamentary Standing Committee on External Affairs has flagged the rising influence of extra-regional powers, especially China, in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) as a growing strategic concern for India. The report emphasizes the need for India to adopt assertive maritime diplomacy and defence preparedness to safeguard its interests.

Key Takeaways

Significance of the Indian Ocean Region

• Third-largest ocean in the world, connecting Asia, Africa, and Oceania
• Carries ~80% of global seaborne oil trade
• Vital sea lanes like the Strait of Hormuz, Strait of Malacca, and Bab el-Mandeb
• Economic stakes increasing with the rise of India, China, ASEAN, and East Africa

China’s Expanding Footprint in the IOR

India’s Strategic Response

Assurance from Neighbours

• Sri Lankan President Anura Kumara Dissanayake assured that Sri Lankan territory will not be used for activities against India’s security interests

Summary

With the Indian Ocean becoming a hotbed of strategic competition, particularly between India and China, India faces the challenge of preserving its influence amid China’s calculated military and political expansion. While China employs tactics like dual-use port infrastructure, surveillance ships, and debt diplomacy, India is countering with a combination of regional engagement, naval modernization, and institutional leadership in forums like IORA and IONS. Maintaining stability and sovereignty in the IOR is essential for India’s economic security and geopolitical stature.

Exam Connect – Possible Questions

Prelims

1. Which of the following statements about the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) is correct?
   A. It is a military alliance of Indian Ocean countries.
   B. China is a founding member of IORA.
   C. It focuses on regional cooperation in trade and disaster management.
   D. It is headquartered in New Delhi.
   Answer: C. It focuses on regional cooperation in trade and disaster management.
   
   
2. Which country hosts China’s first overseas military base?
   A. Maldives
   B. Djibouti
   C. Sri Lanka
   D. Myanmar
   Answer: B. Djibouti
   
   
3. Which of the following Indian Ocean countries is not part of India’s SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) initiative?
   A. Seychelles
   B. Bangladesh
   C. Iran
   D. Mauritius
   Answer: C. Iran

Mains

1. “India’s strategic interests in the Indian Ocean Region are increasingly challenged by China’s expanding influence.” Discuss the nature of this challenge and suggest a comprehensive response strategy.
   
   
2. Critically analyze India’s role in shaping maritime governance in the Indian Ocean Region. How can India balance its security concerns with regional cooperation?
   
   
3. “The Indian Ocean is the new geopolitical centre of gravity.” Examine this statement in the context of India-China rivalry and the emerging Indo-Pacific order.