1. Digital Access as a Fundamental Right – Polity
Why in News?
- In a landmark decision, the Supreme Court of India declared digital access a fundamental right under Article 21 of the Constitution.
- This expands the interpretation of the right to life and personal liberty to include access to digital resources, recognizing its role in enabling education, governance, healthcare, and economic participation.
- The judgment calls upon the State to reduce the digital divide by:
- Enhancing infrastructure and accessibility.
- Adopting inclusive digital policies.
- Revising KYC norms for people with disabilities.
Key Constitutional Provisions Involved:
| Article | Provision | Relevance to Judgment |
|---|---|---|
| Article 21 | Right to life and personal liberty | Digital access seen as essential to live a life with dignity in the modern age. |
| Article 14 | Right to equality | Highlights the need for equal digital opportunities regardless of socio-economic background. |
| Article 15 | Prohibition of discrimination | Ensures digital policies do not exclude vulnerable groups like women, disabled persons, or SC/STs. |
| Article 38 (DPSP) | Promotion of welfare and reduction of inequality | Mandates State responsibility to bridge the digital divide. |
Core Concepts Explained
Digital Access as a Fundamental Right
- The Court held that digital access is now part of the “right to life” as per Article 21.
- This reflects the modern reality where participation in society is increasingly digital-first – from education and job applications to government services.
Substantive Equality vs Formal Equality
- Formal Equality: Everyone treated the same.
- Substantive Equality: Recognizes differences in people’s starting points and tailors policies accordingly.
- Example: Providing screen readers or alternative KYC processes for visually impaired users.
- The judgment stresses substantive equality in digital policy design to ensure genuine inclusion.
Implications of the Judgment
1. State Obligations Enhanced
- The State is now constitutionally mandated to:
- Provide equitable digital infrastructure (internet connectivity, devices, etc.).
- Ensure accessible digital content (multiple languages, formats for persons with disabilities).
- Invest in digital literacy and training.
2. Impact on Governance and Policy
- All digital initiatives (e.g., Digital India, e-Governance) must now be inclusive by design.
- Policies must consider digital needs of marginalized groups (rural populations, women, disabled, elderly, etc.).
- Promotes universal digital public services as a right, not a privilege.
3. Judicial Precedent for Future Cases
- This case sets a progressive precedent for interpreting fundamental rights in the digital age.
- Could influence:
- Right to internet access.
- Protection from digital surveillance.
- Digital privacy and data rights.
Example-Based Understanding
| Context | Application of Judgment |
|---|---|
| Education | Online classes must be accessible to students from low-income or rural backgrounds – free data, public Wi-Fi, etc. |
| Banking/Finance | KYC norms to be modified so that people with disabilities or lacking standard ID can still access services. |
| Healthcare | e-Health services (like CoWIN, Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission) must reach rural areas through inclusive tech. |
Conclusion
- The Supreme Court’s ruling is a watershed moment in recognizing digital access as a constitutional entitlement, aligning India’s governance with 21st-century realities.
- The emphasis on inclusion and dignity highlights the evolving understanding of fundamental rights beyond mere formal provisions.
Summary
- The Supreme Court has declared access to digital resources as a fundamental right under Article 21, emphasizing that digital inclusion is essential for a life of dignity and equality.
- The judgment reinforces State responsibility to reduce the digital divide through inclusive policies, infrastructure, and accessibility standards.
- It highlights substantive equality, requiring tailored approaches for marginalized communities.
- The ruling sets a powerful legal and policy precedent in the realm of digital rights, with far-reaching implications for governance, welfare delivery, and constitutional jurisprudence.
Exam Connect – Possible Questions
Prelims :
1. With reference to Article 21 of the Indian Constitution, consider the following statements:
1.It guarantees the right to life and personal liberty.
2.It includes the right to digital access as per a recent Supreme Court ruling.
3.It is a Directive Principle of State Policy (DPSP).
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: A. 1 and 2 only
Explanation: Article 21 is a Fundamental Right, not a DPSP. The recent SC judgment includes digital access under Article 21.
2. Which of the following Articles of the Indian Constitution relate to reducing inequality and promoting welfare?
A. Article 14
B. Article 19
C. Article 38
D. Article 50
Answer: C. Article 38
Explanation: Article 38 is a DPSP that directs the State to secure a social order promoting the welfare of people and reduce inequalities.
3. Consider the following pairs:
| Term | Description |
|---|---|
| 1. Substantive Equality | Equal treatment regardless of background |
| 2. Formal Equality | Equal policies tailored to diverse needs |
| 3. Digital Divide | Gap between those with and without access to digital technologies |
Which of the pairs are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 3 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 3 only
D. None of the above
Answer: C. 3 only
Explanation: The definitions of 1 and 2 are swapped.
- Substantive equality = treating unequals unequally to achieve real fairness.
- Formal equality = treating everyone the same regardless of their context.
4. Which of the following judgments first recognized internet access as part of fundamental rights in India?
A.Shreya Singhal v. Union of India
B. Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India
C. Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India
D. People’s Union for Civil Liberties v. Union of India
Answer: C. Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India
Explanation: In Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India (2020), the SC held that freedom of speech and expression over the internet is protected under Article 19(1)(a).
5. Which of the following best describes the recent Supreme Court judgment on digital access?
A. Digital access is now a Directive Principle of State Policy.
B. Digital literacy programs are mandatory for all students.
C. Digital access is recognized as an intrinsic part of the right to life and liberty.
D. Digital access is only required for rural development schemes.
Answer: C. Digital access is recognized as an intrinsic part of the right to life and liberty.
Explanation: The Court ruled that digital access is an essential component of the fundamental right to life under Article 21.
Mains :
- “The right to digital access is now intrinsic to the right to life and liberty.” Discuss in the context of the Supreme Court’s recent ruling.
- Evaluate the role of the judiciary in expanding the scope of Article 21 to accommodate emerging socio-economic realities.
- How can the principle of substantive equality help in bridging the digital divide in India?
2. Suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) – International Relations
Why in News?
- India has suspended the Indus Waters Treaty (1960) in response to the killing of 26 Indian tourists in Jammu & Kashmir, allegedly by Pakistan-backed terrorists.
- This marks a major diplomatic and strategic shift, potentially undermining a key water-sharing mechanism between the two countries.
About the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT)
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Signed | 1960, between India and Pakistan, brokered by the World Bank. |
| Purpose | To share the waters of the Indus River System. |
| Allocation | Eastern Rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) to India; Western Rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab) to Pakistan (India can use them for non-consumptive use). |
| Supervisory Mechanism | Permanent Indus Commission (PIC) and dispute resolution mechanisms through arbitration or neutral experts. |
Legal and Treaty Constraints
- Article XII (4) of the IWT: The treaty remains in force unless both parties agree to terminate it.
- India cannot unilaterally withdraw, as per treaty provisions.
- India is not a signatory to the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969), which weakens its international legal position on unilateral suspension.
- Pakistan intends to challenge the suspension at international legal forums.
Strategic and Practical Implications
1. Control Over Water Flows
- India may gain strategic leverage by potentially controlling flows into Pakistan.
- Possibilities include:
- Reducing water flows (risking artificial droughts).
- Sudden release of water (risking floods in Pakistan).
- These moves would impact Pakistan’s agriculture and drinking water security, as the country depends heavily on western rivers.
2. Infrastructure Limitations
- Despite the treaty, India has not fully utilized its allocated share.
- Eastern Rivers: Moderately developed.
- Western Rivers: Infrastructure projects (e.g., Kishanganga, Ratle) have been challenged by Pakistan.
- To operationalize the suspension meaningfully, India would need to build significant water diversion and storage infrastructure.
Geopolitical and Diplomatic Risks
| Risks | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Precedent Setting | May weaken India’s moral high ground and set a precedent for other countries (e.g., China with Brahmaputra). |
| Impact on Ganga Treaty | Nepal, Bangladesh may view India as unreliable in future water-sharing commitments. |
| China Factor | China controls upstream portions of some Indian rivers (like the Yarlung Tsangpo/Brahmaputra) — India’s suspension may provoke retaliatory water diplomacy. |
Broader Implications for India-Pakistan Relations
- The IWT has survived wars and tensions, often cited as an example of successful conflict-resilient diplomacy.
- Suspending it removes one of the few functioning communication channels between the two nations.
- May reduce scope for confidence-building measures (CBMs) and regional cooperation.
Key Takeaways for Mains
- The suspension of the IWT reflects India’s strategic posturing in response to cross-border terrorism.
- However, long-term peace and water security are better served through collaborative and legal dispute resolution mechanisms, rather than unilateral action.
- Infrastructure readiness and adherence to international law remain critical for sustainable implementation.
Summary
- India’s suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty is a strategic response to Pakistan-linked terror activities, marking a shift from diplomacy to coercive signalling.
- However, unilateral withdrawal is legally constrained, as the treaty can only be terminated through mutual consent under Article XII(4).
- The move carries serious geopolitical and infrastructural challenges, especially in terms of India’s preparedness to control water flows and manage diplomatic fallout.
- It raises important questions about the future of transboundary water treaties and the use of natural resources as a foreign policy tool.
Exam Connect – Possible Questions
Prelims :
1. Which of the following rivers is NOT covered under the Indus Waters Treaty?
A. Ravi
B. Beas
C. Ganga
D. Chenab
Answer: C. Ganga
Explanation: Ganga is not part of the Indus river system and is not covered under the IWT.
2. Which international organization played a key role in brokering the Indus Waters Treaty?
A. United Nations
B. International Court of Justice
C. World Bank
D. Asian Development Bank
Answer: C. World Bank
Explanation: The World Bank was the mediator and guarantor of the IWT.
3. Which Article of the Indus Waters Treaty specifies that it cannot be terminated unilaterally?
A. Article VI
B. Article X
C. Article XII
D. Article XIV
Answer: C. Article XII
Explanation: Article XII(4) states the treaty is binding unless terminated by mutual agreement.
4. Consider the following statements:
1.India is a signatory to the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.
2.India can legally suspend the Indus Waters Treaty unilaterally.
3.The Permanent Indus Commission is a part of the treaty’s conflict resolution mechanism.
Which of the statements is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C. 3 only
Explanation: India is not a signatory to the Vienna Convention. The treaty does not permit unilateral suspension. The PIC is indeed a part of the IWT mechanism.
5. The western rivers allocated to Pakistan under the Indus Waters Treaty include:
1.Jhelum
2.Chenab
3.Sutlej
4.Indus
Choose the correct answer using the code below:
A. 1 and 3 only
B. 1, 2 and 4 only
C. 2, 3 and 4 only
D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: B. 1, 2 and 4 only
Explanation: Sutlej is an eastern river, allocated to India. The western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab) are for Pakistan.
Mains :
- “India’s suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty marks a shift in its water diplomacy.” Discuss the implications in the context of international law and regional geopolitics.
- Examine the limitations of the Indus Waters Treaty and the challenges India faces in asserting its strategic interests without breaching international obligations.
- To what extent can water be used as a tool of diplomacy in South Asia?
3. National Security Advisory Board (NSAB) – Reconstitution & Role – Defence & Security
Why in News?
- The Union Government has restructured the National Security Advisory Board (NSAB).
- Alok Joshi, former chief of the Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), has been appointed as the new Chairman.
- Comes amid rising India–Pakistan tensions after the Pahalgam terror attack.
What is the National Security Advisory Board (NSAB)?
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Established | First constituted in 1998 as part of the three-tier national security system. |
| Status | Advisory body, with no constitutional or statutory authority. |
| Works Under | National Security Council Secretariat (NSCS). |
| Reports To | National Security Council (NSC). |
| Nature of Role | Provides non-binding strategic advice to aid national security policy. |
Composition and Appointment
- Chairperson: Typically a retired senior official (e.g., intelligence/military/diplomacy).
- Members: Around 7 members from diverse backgrounds:
- Diplomacy
- Defence forces
- Intelligence
- Strategic studies
- Technology
- Academia
- Appointment: By the Prime Minister’s Office (PMO) or on the recommendation of the National Security Advisor (NSA).
Functions and Responsibilities
| Function | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Strategic Policy Inputs | Recommends long-term security and geopolitical strategies. |
| Risk Assessment | Analyzes emerging threats (cyber, terror, hybrid warfare, etc.). |
| Non-Governmental Expertise | Brings in perspectives outside the bureaucratic and military structure. |
| Coordination Support | Aids the National Security Council (NSC) in forming a coherent policy. |
| Research and Analysis | Provides in-depth policy research on issues like border security, maritime security, and neighbourhood policy. |
| Technology and Industry Focus | Evaluates developments in strategic industries, defence R&D, and dual-use technologies. |
Significance of the Recent Revamp
- Reconstitution brings fresh expertise and independent voices at a time of:
- Cross-border terrorism (e.g., Pahalgam attack).
- Rising regional instability (India-China tensions, Indo-Pacific realignment).
- Evolving domains of conflict (cyberwarfare, drones, AI in warfare).
- Demonstrates the government’s intent to strengthen strategic thinking and national preparedness.
- Indicates a focus on policy-driven security architecture, not just reactive responses.
Current and Emerging Areas of Focus
- Neighbourhood Strategy – Relations with China, Pakistan, and regional powers.
- Internal Security – Terrorism, insurgency, radicalization, cyber threats.
- Maritime Security – Indian Ocean Region (IOR), Indo-Pacific partnerships.
- Border Management – Modernizing infrastructure, surveillance, and military posture.
- Technology and Strategic Industry – AI, drones, semiconductors, dual-use tech.
- Intelligence Reforms – Enhancing coordination and anticipatory analysis.
Comparative Perspective
| Body | Status | Function |
|---|---|---|
| NSAB | Advisory (non-statutory) | Strategic policy inputs |
| National Security Council (NSC) | Apex coordinating body | Makes high-level security decisions |
| Defence Planning Committee | Inter-agency body (2018) | Defence capability development |
| Intelligence Bureau (IB), RAW | Operational agencies | Intelligence collection & analysis |
Summary
- The National Security Advisory Board (NSAB) has been restructured with Alok Joshi as the new chairman, reflecting India’s evolving strategic priorities amidst growing threats.
- NSAB is a non-statutory, advisory body under the National Security Council Secretariat, offering strategic insights, policy inputs, and independent analysis on national security matters.
- It plays a vital role in bridging government policy with expert analysis, particularly in domains like border management, technology, internal and maritime security.
- While its recommendations are non-binding, the NSAB is a crucial pillar in shaping long-term security and defence policies in India.
Exam Connect – Possible Questions
Prelims :
1. The National Security Advisory Board (NSAB) is:
A. A statutory body under the Ministry of Defence
B. An executive body with enforcement powers
C. An advisory body under the National Security Council Secretariat
D. A parliamentary committee on national security
Answer: C. An advisory body under the National Security Council Secretariat
Explanation: The NSAB is a non-statutory, non-binding advisory body under the NSCS.
2. Which of the following correctly describes the function of the NSAB?
A. It executes national security operations.
B. It prepares and passes defence budgets.
C. It advises the government on strategic and security matters.
D. It investigates internal security violations.
Answer: C. It advises the government on strategic and security matters.
Explanation: The NSAB is responsible for providing strategic and security policy advice.
3. Who appoints the members of the National Security Advisory Board?
A. President of India
B. National Security Advisor or PMO
C. Parliament
D. Ministry of Home Affairs
Answer: B. National Security Advisor or PMO
Explanation: Members are appointed by the Prime Minister’s Office or on the recommendation of the NSA.
4. Which of the following statements is/are true regarding the NSAB?
1.It is a constitutional body.
2.Its recommendations are binding on the government.
3.It consists of members from diverse fields like diplomacy, defence, and academia.
Select the correct answer using the code below:
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C. 3 only
Explanation: NSAB is neither constitutional nor statutory, and its advice is non-binding.
Mains :
- “The National Security Advisory Board provides strategic depth to India’s national security architecture.” Critically analyze its role and limitations.
- Discuss the significance of independent strategic advisory bodies like the NSAB in shaping India’s security policy in the age of hybrid threats.
- Evaluate the challenges in institutionalizing national security decision-making in India.
4. Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs) in India – Economy
Why in News?
- In April 2025, FIIs turned net buyers in Indian equity markets for the first time in four months, investing ₹4,223 crore.
- The reversal in trend is attributed to:
- A weaker U.S. Dollar Index (from 104–105 to ~99–100)
- A more stable Indian rupee
- The RBI’s accommodative stance on inflation and growth
- However, FIIs have reduced exposure to the IT sector due to fears of a U.S. recession impacting tech earnings.
Who Are FIIs?
| Feature | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Definition | FIIs are large foreign institutions that invest in India’s financial markets |
| Examples | Mutual funds, pension funds, insurance companies, hedge funds |
| Relation to FPIs | FIIs are a subset of Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs) |
| Investment Nature | Mostly portfolio investments – stocks, bonds, mutual funds |
| Approach | Often strategic and long-term, but with potential for sudden exits |
Regulatory Framework
| Law/Agency | Role |
|---|---|
| FEMA (1999) | Governs foreign exchange and capital flows |
| SEBI (FPI) Regulations, 2019 | Categorizes and regulates foreign portfolio investors |
| Reserve Bank of India (RBI) | Monitors sectoral caps and macro-prudential norms |
Investment Ceilings for FIIs
- 10% cap: Maximum FII holding in a single Indian company
- 24% aggregate cap: Total holdings by FIIs + NRIs + PIOs (can be raised by shareholder resolution)
- FIIs can invest in:
- Listed & unlisted securities
- Use proprietary funds
- University funds, charitable endowments, and trusts with 5+ years of operation are eligible
Recent Trends and Sectoral Allocation (April 2025)
Increased FII Investment In:
- Banking, Financial Services & Insurance (BFSI)
- Strong domestic consumption
- Supportive regulatory and interest rate environment
Reduced FII Investment In:
- Information Technology (IT)
- Global demand slowdown
- Risk of U.S. economic slowdown affecting tech exports
Macroeconomic Drivers
| Driver | Impact on FII Inflows |
|---|---|
| Falling U.S. Dollar Index | Enhances the value of investments in emerging markets like India |
| Stable Indian Rupee | Reduces currency risk for foreign investors |
| RBI’s Accommodative Stance | Lowers interest rates, supports growth, attracts equity investment |
Risks Associated with FII Flows
| Risk | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Volatility | FIIs can withdraw quickly in times of global uncertainty, causing market crashes |
| Hot Money Effect | Sudden inflows/outflows destabilize currency and stock markets |
| Limited Control | FIIs don’t participate in management or long-term development |
| Global Dependency | Sensitive to U.S. Fed policy, geopolitical tensions, oil prices |
FII vs FDI – Quick Comparison
| Parameter | FII | FDI |
|---|---|---|
| Type | Portfolio investment | Direct ownership of assets/business |
| Volatility | High (short-term, speculative) | Low (long-term and stable) |
| Control | No management control | Often includes control or influence |
| Exit | Quick and easy | Difficult and time-consuming |
| Regulation | SEBI, RBI, FEMA | DPIIT, RBI, FEMA |
Summary
- In April 2025, FIIs became net buyers in Indian equities after four months of outflows, investing ₹4,223 crore.
- FIIs are large institutions that invest in financial markets, regulated by SEBI, RBI, and FEMA.
- Their activity is sensitive to global cues, especially U.S. dollar trends and domestic macroeconomic conditions.
- While they add liquidity and market depth, FIIs also pose risks of volatility and dependency on external factors.
- Effective regulatory oversight is essential to balance growth, investor confidence, and financial stability.
Exam Connect – Possible Questions
Prelims :
1. Which of the following correctly defines a Foreign Institutional Investor (FII)?
A. A foreign company setting up a factory in India
B. An Indian bank investing abroad
C. A foreign entity investing in Indian securities and bonds
D. A foreign diplomat receiving salary in India
Answer: C. A foreign entity investing in Indian securities and bonds
2. Which of the following governs FII investments in India?
1.Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), 1999
2.SEBI (FPI) Regulations
3.Companies Act, 2013
Select the correct answer:
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: A. 1 and 2 only
Explanation: The Companies Act does not regulate foreign portfolio investment.
3. What is the individual investment limit for a single FII in an Indian company’s paid-up capital?
A. 5%
B. 10%
C. 24%
D. 49%
Answer: B. 10%
4. Which of the following may increase FII inflows into India?
1.Strengthening Indian rupee
2.Rising U.S. interest rates
3.Falling U.S. Dollar Index
4.RBI rate cuts
Choose the correct option:
A. 1, 3, and 4 only
B. 2 and 4 only
C. 1 and 2 only
D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: A. 1, 3, and 4 only
Mains :
- “While FIIs bring liquidity and depth to Indian capital markets, they also expose the economy to external shocks.” Examine in light of recent investment trends.
- Discuss the role of regulatory bodies in managing the volatility associated with FII inflows.
- Compare and contrast the nature and implications of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and Foreign Institutional Investment (FII) in India.
5. Bonded Labour in India – A Governance Challenge – Governance
Why in News?
- May 1 – International Labour Day – serves as a global celebration of workers’ rights.
- In India, the day also highlights the ongoing tragedy of bonded and forced labour, which continues despite constitutional guarantees and decades of legal prohibition.
- Real-life stories of survivors like Mukesh Adivasi and K. Thenmozhi expose the failure of enforcement, rehabilitation, and accountability.
What Is Bonded Labour?
| Definition | A form of forced labour where individuals are compelled to work to repay debts or advances, often under inhumane conditions, without freedom to leave. |
|---|---|
| Legal Status | Prohibited by the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976. It is a criminal offence under Indian law. |
Case Studies
- Mukesh Adivasi
- Trafficked 1,400 km to Karnataka for sugarcane labour.
- Subjected to abuse, confinement, and inhuman conditions.
- K. Thenmozhi
- At age 13, forced into bondage at a brick kiln due to a small loan her family couldn’t repay.
- Her case illustrates intergenerational bondage, poverty, and lack of social protection.
Constitutional and Legal Framework
| Provision | Protection Offered |
|---|---|
| Article 23 (Fundamental Right) | Prohibits forced labour, including bonded labour |
| Bonded Labour Abolition Act (1976) | Declares bonded labour illegal, mandates release and rehabilitation |
| SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act | Used when bonded labour involves caste-based discrimination |
| Labour Codes (2020) | Aimed at simplifying and consolidating labour regulations; implementation is pending in many states |
Structural Causes of Bonded Labour
- Poverty and Debt – Families borrow money from landlords or employers, often at exploitative interest rates.
- Caste-Based Discrimination – Marginalised castes and Adivasi communities are disproportionately affected.
- Illiteracy and Lack of Awareness – Victims often do not know their legal rights.
- Weak Enforcement – Labour inspectors are few; local authorities are often complicit or indifferent.
- Migration and Trafficking – Unregulated migration leads to exploitation by middlemen and traffickers.
Government Response and Gaps
Existing Schemes
- Central Sector Scheme for Rehabilitation of Bonded Labourers (2016):
- Provides ₹1 lakh to ₹3 lakh as rehabilitation assistance.
- Includes psychological counselling, skill development, and legal aid.
Implementation Challenges
- Low identification rates of bonded labourers
- Under-utilization of funds allocated for rehabilitation
- Poor coordination among District Magistrates, police, and labour departments
Governance Issues and Policy Failures
| Issue | Consequence |
|---|---|
| Tokenism in implementation | Rehabilitation schemes exist mostly on paper |
| Lack of political will | Minimal prosecutions and follow-through |
| Neglect of systemic inequality | Caste, gender, and region-specific vulnerabilities are ignored |
| Urban invisibility | Bonded labour in urban sectors like construction, domestic work, etc., remains undocumented |
Summary
- Bonded labour continues to be a blot on India’s labour rights regime, violating Article 23 of the Constitution and the Bonded Labour Abolition Act (1976).
- Real-life cases like Mukesh Adivasi and K. Thenmozhi highlight systemic exploitation driven by poverty, caste, and state inaction.
- Despite legal frameworks and rehabilitation schemes, implementation is weak and often tokenistic.
- Structural inequality, lack of enforcement, and absence of political will remain the biggest obstacles.
- A rights-based, inclusive, and community-driven approach is essential to eliminate this form of modern slavery.
Exam Connect – Possible Questions
Prelims :
1. Which Article of the Indian Constitution prohibits forced labour?
A. Article 19
B. Article 21
C. Article 23
D. Article 24
Answer: C. Article 23
2. The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act was enacted in which year?
A. 1956
B. 1976
C. 1986
D. 1996
Answer: B. 1976
3. Which of the following factors contribute to the persistence of bonded labour in India?
1.Caste-based discrimination
2.Informal economy dominance
3.Weak labour law enforcement
4.Universal basic income
Choose the correct answer:
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 1, 2 and 3 only
C. 2 and 4 only
D. 1, 3 and 4 only
Answer: B. 1, 2 and 3 only
4. Which scheme provides financial assistance for the rehabilitation of bonded labourers?
A. PM-SVANidhi
B. NIRBHAYA Fund
C. Central Sector Scheme for Rehabilitation of Bonded Labourers
D. Ujjwala Yojana
Answer: C.Central Sector Scheme for Rehabilitation of Bonded Labourers
Mains :
- Despite constitutional and legal safeguards, bonded labour persists in India. Critically examine the causes and suggest governance reforms.
- Discuss the limitations of India’s rehabilitation framework for bonded labourers and propose a roadmap for meaningful implementation.
- “The persistence of bonded labour undermines the ideals of dignity and equality enshrined in the Constitution.” Examine.
6. Vembanad Lake Rejuvenation Project – Environment
Why in News?
- The Alappuzha District Administration has launched a five-year rejuvenation plan for Vembanad Lake, inspired by the Namami Gange Programme.
- The proposed project is worth ₹188.25 crore and aims to restore the lake’s ecological health through sector-wise action plans and community engagement.
About Vembanad Lake
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Location | Spans Alappuzha, Kottayam, and Ernakulam districts of Kerala |
| Length & Area | Longest lake in India (~96 km), approx. 2,033 sq km in area |
| Rivers Feeding It | Fed by six major rivers – including Meenachil, Pamba, Manimala, Achankovil |
| Ecological Status | Ramsar site (designated in 2002) due to rich biodiversity and wetland value |
| Tourism & Culture | Home to Kumarakom Bird Sanctuary, Nehru Trophy Snake Boat Race, and backwater tourism |
Environmental Challenges
| Problem | Impact |
|---|---|
| Surface Area Reduction | Shrunk by 27% between 1917–1990 due to encroachments, siltation |
| Plastic Pollution | Over 72 tonnes of plastic removed in recent cleanup efforts |
| Invasive Species | Overgrowth of water hyacinth choking the ecosystem |
| Encroachments & Illegal Constructions | Disrupt water flow and aquatic habitats |
| Agricultural Runoff & Eutrophication | Excess nutrients reduce water quality and oxygen levels |
| Declining Biodiversity | Habitat loss affects bird migration and aquatic species |
Vembanad Lake Rejuvenation Project – Key Features
| Aspect | Description |
|---|---|
| Total Budget | ₹188.25 crore over five years (subject to revision) |
| Modelled After | Namami Gange Programme – integrated and multi-stakeholder approach |
| Executing Body | Alappuzha District Administration, in coordination with CWRDM and state government |
| Subcommittees Formed | 8 subcommittees across sectors: agriculture, fisheries, tourism, disaster management, water quality, urban development, etc. |
| Scientific Backing | Project shaped by studies from the Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (CWRDM) |
| Community Involvement | Promotes stakeholder participation from local residents, fishermen, and environmental groups |
Ecological and Economic Importance of Vembanad Lake
Ecological Value
- Habitat for migratory birds (e.g., Siberian cranes)
- Spawning ground for fish and shellfish
- Buffer against floods and saline intrusion
Economic Value
- Supports fisheries, paddy cultivation, and tourism
- Vital to the livelihoods of thousands of households
- A cornerstone of Kerala’s houseboat tourism and festivals
Relevance to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
| SDG Goal | Relevance |
|---|---|
| SDG 6 (Clean Water & Sanitation) | Focus on water quality and pollution control |
| SDG 13 (Climate Action) | Enhances climate resilience of the wetland ecosystem |
| SDG 15 (Life on Land) | Supports biodiversity conservation |
| SDG 14 (Life Below Water) | Protects aquatic life and ecosystem services |
Summary
- Vembanad Lake, India’s longest and Kerala’s largest lake, is ecologically vital and economically central to the region’s livelihoods and tourism.
- It is a Ramsar site facing threats from pollution, encroachments, invasive species, and habitat degradation.
- The new five-year rejuvenation project, worth ₹188.25 crore and modeled on the Namami Gange Programme, seeks to restore the lake through scientific planning, subcommittees, and stakeholder engagement.
- Success will depend on sustained funding, enforcement, and community participation, ensuring that the lake remains a living ecosystem and cultural treasure.
Exam Connect – Possible Questions
Prelims :
1. Vembanad Lake is spread across which of the following districts?
Alappuzha
Kottayam
Ernakulam
Palakkad
Select the correct answer:
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 1, 2 and 3 only
C. 2, 3 and 4 only
D. 1, 3 and 4 only
Answer: B. 1, 2 and 3 only
2. Which of the following rivers feed into the Vembanad Lake?
1.Meenachil
2.Pamba
3.Narmada
4.Achankovil
Choose the correct answer:
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 1, 2 and 4 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: B.1, 2 and 4 only
3. Which of the following statements about Vembanad Lake is correct?
A. It is India’s deepest lake.
B. It is the shortest Ramsar site in India.
C. It is India’s longest lake and a Ramsar site.
D. It is located in Tamil Nadu.
Answer: C. It is India’s longest lake and a Ramsar site.
4. The Vembanad Lake Rejuvenation Project is inspired by which of the following national programmes?
A. Jal Jeevan Mission
B. Smart Cities Mission
C. Namami Gange Programme
D. National Mission for Clean Ganga
Answer: C. Namami Gange Programme
Mains :
- Discuss the ecological and economic significance of Vembanad Lake and evaluate the need for a comprehensive restoration plan.
- What lessons can the Vembanad Lake Rejuvenation Project learn from the Namami Gange Programme?
- “The health of wetlands is critical to India’s environmental security.” Examine with reference to Ramsar sites like Vembanad.
7. Red-Crowned Roofed Turtle – Conservation Milestone – Environment
Why in News?
- After an absence of 30 years, the Red-Crowned Roofed Turtle has returned to the Ganga River, signalling a major success in aquatic biodiversity conservation.
- The species, once considered locally extinct in parts of the Ganga basin, has now been spotted again, thanks to conservation initiatives.
About the Red-Crowned Roofed Turtle
| Parameter | Details |
|---|---|
| Scientific Name | Batagur kachuga |
| Common Name | Red-Crowned Roofed Turtle |
| Classification | Class: Reptilia Order: Testudines Family: Geoemydidae |
| Conservation Status | Critically Endangered (IUCN Red List) Schedule I – Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 Appendix II – CITES |
Habitat and Distribution
| Geographic Range | Details |
|---|---|
| Endemic Region | South Asia: India, Bangladesh, and Nepal |
| Historical Habitat | Widespread in the Ganga River system |
| Present Range in India | Major population in the National Chambal Gharial Wildlife Sanctuary |
| Habitat Type | Freshwater river systems, especially with sandbanks for nesting |
Physical Characteristics
| Feature | Description |
|---|---|
| Size | Females: Up to 56 cm & 25 kg Males: Half the size of females |
| Coloration | Reddish-orange head with black crown (males); Greenish-brown carapace with yellow patterns |
| Other Traits | Yellow plastron with black markings, broad head with strong jaws, webbed feet |
Diet and Behaviour
- Omnivorous: Feeds on aquatic plants, fruits, molluscs, crustaceans, and insects.
- Nesting: Prefers sandbanks and lays eggs during dry seasons; highly vulnerable to habitat disturbance.
Threats to Survival
| Threat | Impact |
|---|---|
| Habitat Destruction | Riverbank erosion, sand mining, dam construction |
| Pollution | Industrial effluents and untreated sewage harm aquatic life |
| Poaching | For meat, shell, and traditional medicine |
| Egg Harvesting | Local communities collect eggs for food or sale |
| Invasive Species | Compete for food and nesting grounds |
| Climate Change | Alters river flow and nesting cycles |
Conservation Efforts and Recent Success
| Initiative | Outcome |
|---|---|
| Return to Ganga River | Rediscovery after 30 years, suggests improving habitat health |
| Protected Area | Chambal River Gharial Sanctuary hosts key populations |
| Captive Breeding and Release Programs | Run by wildlife NGOs and forest departments |
| Legal Protection | Schedule I of WPA ensures maximum protection |
| Community-Based Conservation | Awareness campaigns and livelihood alternatives for local communities |
Ecological Importance
- Keystone species: Helps maintain aquatic ecosystem balance by controlling algal and invertebrate populations.
- Indicator species: Its presence signals healthy riverine ecosystems.
- Supports nutrient recycling through its feeding and nesting behaviour.
Relevance to Conservation Goals
| Global/National Target | Alignment |
|---|---|
| SDG 15 (Life on Land) | Conserves terrestrial and inland freshwater biodiversity |
| India’s Wildlife Action Plan (2017-2031) | Focus on species recovery programmes and riverine ecosystem conservation |
| National Biodiversity Targets | Supports the goal of preventing species extinction |
Summary
- The Red-Crowned Roofed Turtle (Batagur kachuga), a Critically Endangered freshwater species, has returned to the Ganga River after 30 years.
- Native to South Asia, it faces threats from habitat destruction, poaching, pollution, and egg harvesting.
- Legally protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, and Appendix II of CITES, the turtle plays a vital ecological role.
- Its return is a hopeful indicator of the success of targeted conservation efforts, including habitat restoration, legal protection, and awareness campaigns.
- Sustaining these gains requires community involvement, ecological monitoring, and long-term policy commitment.
Exam Connect – Possible Questions
Prelims :
1. Which of the following statements about the Red-Crowned Roofed Turtle is correct?
A. It is listed under Schedule II of the Wildlife Protection Act.
B. It is exclusively found in saltwater habitats.
C. It is endemic to South Asia and listed as Critically Endangered by IUCN.
D. It is an herbivorous species found only in Nepal.
Answer: C. It is endemic to South Asia and listed as Critically Endangered by IUCN.
2. In which of the following sanctuaries is the Red-Crowned Roofed Turtle commonly found?
A. Nandankanan Sanctuary
B. Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary
C. National Chambal Gharial Sanctuary
D. Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park
Answer: C. National Chambal Gharial Sanctuary
3. Which of the following is/are threats to the Red-Crowned Roofed Turtle?
1.Sand mining
2.Egg collection
3.Industrial pollution
4.Urban tree felling
Choose the correct answer:
A. 1, 2 and 3 only
B. 1 and 4 only
C. 2 and 4 only
D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: A. 1, 2 and 3 only
4. Which of the following international conventions include the Red-Crowned Roofed Turtle?
A. Ramsar Convention
B. CITES Appendix II
C. Bonn Convention
D. Kyoto Protocol
Answer: B. CITES Appendix II
Mains :
- Discuss the significance of the Red-Crowned Roofed Turtle’s return to the Ganga River in the context of biodiversity conservation in India.
- Examine the threats faced by freshwater turtles in India and suggest long-term solutions for their protection.
- How can community participation strengthen the conservation of endangered aquatic species in India?