1. South-west Monsoon: Its Onset and Retreat – Geography
Why in the News?
The India Meteorological Department (IMD) announced that the south-west monsoon began its earliest withdrawal in a decade on September 14 from western Rajasthan, three days ahead of the usual date of September 17.
Background: What is the South-west Monsoon?
The south-west monsoon is the primary monsoon affecting the Indian subcontinent, delivering approximately 75% of India’s annual rainfall, crucial for agriculture (especially Kharif crops), hydropower, and water storage.
- Onset: Around June 1, starting from Kerala.
- Full coverage: Mid-July.
- Withdrawal: Begins from western Rajasthan and typically ends by mid-October.
Key Points
Mechanism of Onset
- Differential Heating: Indian land heats faster than the ocean, creating low pressure over NW India.
- Mascarene Highs: High-pressure systems near the Mascarene Islands push moist winds toward India.
- ITCZ Shift: The Intertropical Convergence Zone shifts northward over the Ganga plains, anchoring the monsoon trough.
- Tibetan Plateau: Its heating creates an elevated heat source, aiding the pressure gradient.
- Jet Streams:
- Subtropical Westerly Jet (STWJ) moves north, allowing monsoon formation.
- Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) brings additional moisture inflow.
- Orographic Uplift: Western Ghats, NE hills, and Indo-Gangetic plains cause heavy rainfall due to topography.
Mechanism of Withdrawal
- Seasonal Cooling in September weakens the land-sea pressure contrast.
- Reversal of Pressure Gradient – High pressure forms over land, collapsing monsoon winds.
- ITCZ shifts south, drawing back wind systems.
- TEJ weakens, and westerlies return.
- Residual Showers possible in coastal/mountain areas.
Climatic Phenomena Influencing Monsoon
1. ENSO (El Niño–Southern Oscillation)
- A Pacific Ocean-based phenomenon influencing Walker Circulation.
| Phase | Ocean Condition | Monsoon Impact |
|---|---|---|
| El Niño | Warmer Pacific (East/Central) | Weak monsoon, drought-prone |
| La Niña | Cooler Pacific | Strong monsoon, heavy rainfall |
- ENSO = “Remote Controller” of Indian Monsoon
2. Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)
- Positive IOD: Warm west Indian Ocean → Good monsoon
- Negative IOD: Cold west Indian Ocean → Weak monsoon
ENSO–IOD Interaction decides monsoon strength:
- El Niño + Positive IOD = Balanced monsoon
- El Niño + Negative IOD = Severe drought
- La Niña + Positive IOD = Flood risks
3. Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO)
- A transitory tropical disturbance affecting intra-seasonal monsoon variability.
- Responsible for bursts and breaks in monsoon rain.
Himachal Pradesh Connection
- Kharif crops (like maize, paddy) in HP are highly dependent on the monsoon.
- HP experiences high rainfall variability due to monsoon interaction with Himalayan topography.
- Impacts rural livelihoods, horticulture, and tourism sectors during extreme weather events.
Exam Connect – Possible Questions
Prelims
1. Consider the following statements regarding the Indian Monsoon:
1.The Tropical Easterly Jet stream strengthens during the monsoon onset.
2.The Indian Ocean Dipole is a Pacific Ocean phenomenon.
Which of the above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: A.1 only
2. Which of the following climatic factors influence the withdrawal of the southwest monsoon?
1.Southward shift of the ITCZ
2.Strengthening of Tropical Easterly Jet
3.Return of westerlies
Select the correct answer:
A. 1 and 3 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 2 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: A. 1 and 3 only
Mains
1. Explain the mechanism of onset and withdrawal of the south-west monsoon over India. How do global climatic phenomena like ENSO, IOD, and MJO influence its variability?
2. Discuss the importance of the south-west monsoon for a hill state like Himachal Pradesh. How does monsoon variability impact agriculture, hydropower, and disaster management in the region?
2. Sixth Schedule Demand for Ladakh – Polity
Why in the News?
Ladakh witnessed violent protests led by environmentalist and activist Sonam Wangchuk, demanding:
- Inclusion under the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution, and
- A push for statehood for Ladakh.
Protestors, including major local bodies like the Apex Body Leh (ABL) and the Kargil Democratic Alliance (KDA), argue that the tribal character and cultural identity of Ladakh require constitutional safeguards.
Key Takeaways
- Ladakh became a Union Territory without legislature in 2019, after the abrogation of Article 370 and the bifurcation of Jammu & Kashmir.
- Local groups are demanding greater autonomy and constitutional protection of land, culture, and governance rights.
- The Central Government has ruled out Sixth Schedule inclusion but is considering Article 371-style protections.
What is the Sixth Schedule?
The Sixth Schedule (under Article 244) provides for self-governance and autonomy in tribal areas of four North Eastern states:
- Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram
Key Features:
| Feature | Description |
|---|---|
| Autonomous Districts | Governor can notify tribal regions as autonomous districts |
| District & Regional Councils | Each council has 30 members (26 elected + 4 nominated) |
| Legislative Powers | Councils can make laws on land, forests, customs, village administration |
| Modification of Laws | Parliament laws do not apply automatically; can be adapted |
| Governor’s Role | Can create/modify districts, appoint commissions, dissolve councils |
Why is Ladakh Demanding Sixth Schedule Status?
| Reason | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Demographics | Over 79.6% of Ladakh’s population are Scheduled Tribes |
| Cultural Protection | Fears of losing traditional practices, Buddhist and Islamic heritage |
| Self-Governance | Desire for local control over resources and development |
| Parliamentary Support | Standing Committee on Home Affairs supported inclusion under Sixth Schedule |
Challenges and Opposition to the Demand
| Concern | Details |
|---|---|
| Governance Complexity | Risk of fragmentation within Ladakh (Leh vs. Kargil issues) |
| Strategic Sensitivity | Ladakh is a border region (China-Pakistan), requiring central control |
| Precedent Issue | Inclusion could lead to similar demands from other UTs or tribal areas |
| Alternative Models | Centre proposes Article 371-style protections instead |
Himachal Pradesh Connection
- Himachal Pradesh has Scheduled Tribe areas under the Fifth Schedule, not Sixth.
- Ladakh’s demand draws attention to tribal autonomy models that may one day be considered for other high-altitude tribal regions, including parts of HP.
- Raises questions on administrative autonomy vs. national integration, relevant for border states like HP.
Exam Connect – Possible Questions
Prelims
1. Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution?
1.It applies to all Scheduled Tribe areas in India.
2.It allows District Councils to make laws on forest, land, and customs.
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B. 2 only
2. Consider the following statements about Ladakh:
1.Ladakh is currently a Union Territory with a Legislative Assembly.
2.Over 70% of Ladakh’s population is from Scheduled Tribes.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B. 2 only
Mains
1. Discuss the provisions of the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. In light of recent protests in Ladakh, analyze whether similar autonomy should be extended to Union Territories with tribal populations.
2. Examine the role of special constitutional provisions like Articles 244 and 371 in maintaining India’s federal balance. Should such provisions be extended to new regions like Ladakh? Justify.
3. Youth-led Protests in Ladakh: Demand for Statehood and Sixth Schedule – Polity
Why in the News?
Ladakh has witnessed a sharp escalation in youth-led protests, including a shutdown in Leh, over demands for:
- Statehood for Ladakh
- Inclusion under the Sixth Schedule for tribal autonomy
The situation intensified following the deaths of four protestors and over 30 injuries.
Sonam Wangchuk, noted climate activist, ended a 15-day hunger strike, urging peaceful resistance and youth participation.
Key Takeaways
Root Causes of the Protests:
| Issue | Explanation |
|---|---|
| 2019 Reorganisation | After the abrogation of Article 370, Ladakh became a Union Territory without legislature, causing dissatisfaction. |
| Scheduled Tribe Dominance | Over 90% of Ladakh’s population belongs to Scheduled Tribes, creating demand for Sixth Schedule inclusion. |
| Lack of Representation | Absence of legislative autonomy and local administrative control fuels frustration. |
| Economic Discontent | Youth unemployment rate is 26.5% — almost double the national average. |
| Local Governance Gaps | Demands for a separate Public Service Commission and job reservations for locals. |
Immediate Demands from Protestors (LAB and KDA)
- Constitutional Sixth Schedule status (Autonomous District Councils)
- Full statehood for Ladakh
- Local job reservations
- Establishment of Ladakh Public Service Commission
- Greater representation in Parliament
Government’s Position
- Centre ruled out Sixth Schedule and statehood due to:
- Strategic location of Ladakh (border with China)
- Potential governance complications
- Government willing to discuss limited issues like:
- Public Service Commission
- Parliamentary representation
Analysis: Sixth Schedule vs. Article 371
| Feature | Sixth Schedule | Article 371-style Protections |
|---|---|---|
| Purpose | Autonomy to tribal areas | State-specific provisions |
| Applicable In | NE states (Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram) | Nagaland, Maharashtra, Gujarat, etc. |
| Governance Structure | Autonomous District Councils | Depends on Article sub-clause |
| Suitability for Ladakh? | Demographically yes, Strategically contested |
Himachal Pradesh Connection
- HP, like Ladakh, has high-altitude tribal belts (e.g., Lahaul-Spiti, Kinnaur)
- These areas also face:
- Limited governance access
- Youth outmigration
- Employment issues
- Ladakh’s case offers comparative insights into tribal self-governance models for HP’s own ST areas
Exam Connect – Possible Questions
Prelims
1. Consider the following statements regarding the youth-led protests in Ladakh:
1.The protests demand inclusion under the Fifth Schedule of the Constitution.
2.Ladakh currently has its own Public Service Commission.
Which of the above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D. Neither 1 nor 2
2. With reference to Ladakh’s political status after 2019, consider the following statements:
1.Ladakh is a Union Territory with a legislature.
2.Ladakh was carved out from the state of Jammu & Kashmir under the J&K Reorganisation Act.
Which of the above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B. 2 only
Mains
1. Examine the reasons behind the ongoing youth-led protests in Ladakh. In your opinion, should the region be granted Sixth Schedule status? Justify with constitutional and strategic arguments.
2. Discuss the role of local governance and constitutional safeguards in addressing regional discontent in Union Territories. What lessons can be drawn from the Ladakh protests for inclusive governance?
4. Follow the Rains, Not the Calendar” to Fight Floods – Environment
Why in the News?
Experts and environmental analysts are urging a shift from calendar-based water and flood management to a rainfall-driven approach, in response to increasingly erratic monsoon patterns caused by climate change.
This shift is seen as vital to mitigate flood risks, especially in vulnerable river basins like the Ganga and Brahmaputra.
Key Takeaways
The Problem
- Monsoon variability has increased due to climate change, leading to:
- Short bursts of intense rainfall
- Localized flash floods
- Dry spells during monsoon months
- Despite this, India’s flood management continues to follow outdated calendar-based models, assuming steady rainfall across June–September.
Why Calendar-Based Flood Control Is Obsolete
| Traditional Approach | Current Reality |
|---|---|
| Based on historical averages of rainfall across monsoon months | Highly variable rainfall patterns – both temporally and spatially |
| Dams, barrages, and reservoirs managed by pre-fixed rule curves | These don’t adapt in real-time to intense or deficient rainfall |
| Disaster preparedness linked to calendar alerts (e.g., monsoon onset/withdrawal dates) | Actual rainfall events may not match these schedules |
What Does “Follow the Rains” Mean?
- Use real-time rainfall data instead of monsoon timelines for:
- Reservoir release management
- Urban stormwater control
- Disaster warning systems
- Emphasize dynamic water governance over fixed seasonal expectations.
Recommended Strategies
- Real-Time Rainfall Monitoring Systems
- Expand automated weather stations and Doppler radars
- Dynamic Reservoir Operation Policies
- Replace rigid rule curves with flexible storage-release protocols based on live rainfall inputs
- Climate-Integrated Urban Planning
- Build drainage systems and floodplains based on projected rain events, not average data
- Strengthening Early Warning Systems
- Link alerts to localized precipitation forecasts, not general monsoon stages
- Catchment Area Management
- Increase forest cover and watershed development to slow runoff
Exam Connect – Possible Questions
Prelims
1. Consider the following with respect to flood management in India:
1.Rule curves for dams are adjusted annually based on real-time rainfall data.
2.Integrated Flood Management recommends combining structural and non-structural approaches.
Which of the above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B. 2 only
2. Which of the following best describes “Follow the rains, not the calendar” approach in water management?
A. Following monsoon onset dates strictly for agriculture
B. Using real-time rainfall data for water and flood governance decisions
C. Predicting rainfall based on lunar calendar cycles
D. Building flood infrastructure based on annual average rainfall only
Answer: B. Using real-time rainfall data for water and flood governance decisions
Mains
1. Explain the limitations of India’s traditional flood control systems in the context of changing monsoon patterns. Suggest climate-resilient approaches to flood management, especially for Himalayan states like Himachal Pradesh.
2. “In an era of climate change, rainfall patterns are more relevant than calendar schedules.” Critically evaluate this statement with respect to water governance and disaster preparedness in India.
5. Swipe, Tap, Spend: UPI and the Formalization of the Indian Economy – Economy
Why in the News?
The Unified Payments Interface (UPI) recorded 34.9 billion transactions worth ₹20.4 lakh crore in Q1 of FY 2025–26, marking a massive leap in India’s journey toward a cash-lite and formalized economy.
The increasing use of UPI for everything—from groceries to debt repayment—is seen as a decisive shift in household and business payment behavior.
Key Takeaways
Growth Trends
| Metric | 2018 | 2025 |
|---|---|---|
| Cash Withdrawals | ₹2.6 lakh crore | ₹2.3 lakh crore |
| UPI Share in Private Consumption | 24% (2023) | 40% (2025) |
- UPI transactions now equal 40% of Private Final Consumption Expenditure (PFCE).
- UPI use extends to debt repayments (₹93,857 crore) and securities investments (₹61,080 crore) (July 2025).
Broader Economic Significance
1. Formalization of the Economy
- Traceable transactions increase tax compliance, reduce shadow economy.
- Supports GST, EPFO integration, MSME recognition.
2. Digital Payment Ecosystem Maturity
- UPI has evolved from peer-to-peer transfers to:
- Utility payments
- Investment flows
- Loan EMIs
- Retail purchases
3. Household Behavior Transformation
- UPI is now used across income levels:
- In Q1 FY26, ₹3.4 lakh crore spent on food & beverages via UPI.
- Indicates habitual shift away from cash.
4. Decline in Cash Holdings
- Cash as a share of gross savings:
- 2020–21: 12.5%
- 2023–24: 3.4%
Himachal Pradesh Connection
- Tourism-heavy economy in HP benefits from digital payment penetration, reducing black money.
- UPI usage in rural HP and hill markets is increasing, enhancing:
- Financial access
- MSME formalization
- Women-led entrepreneurship (via digital SHGs, e-commerce)
- Helps integrate remote tribal areas into formal banking channels
Challenges Ahead
| Risk | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Digital Divide | Limited access to internet and smartphones in remote/hilly areas |
| Cybersecurity | Increased fraud risk with higher digital transaction volume |
| Interoperability | Need to integrate UPI with banking, credit scoring, insurance services |
| Sustainability | Ensuring long-term adoption and digital literacy |
Exam Connect – Possible Questions
Prelims
1. With reference to UPI in India, consider the following statements:
1.UPI is developed and managed by the Reserve Bank of India.
2.UPI transactions are limited to peer-to-peer transfers only.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Neither 1 nor 2
D. Both 1 and 2
Answer: C. Neither 1 nor 2
(UPI is developed by NPCI, and is used for a wide range of transactions.)
2. Which of the following best describes the term “formalization of the economy”?
A. Increasing agricultural production
B. Converting informal economic activities into regulated ones
C. Enhancing trade surplus
D. Promoting micro-enterprises without registration
Answer: B. Converting informal economic activities into regulated ones
Mains
1. Discuss how the growth of UPI and digital payments is contributing to the formalization of the Indian economy. What challenges must be addressed to sustain this transformation?
2. “Digital transactions are not just a convenience, but a structural reform tool.” Examine this statement in the context of India’s informal economy and rural development.
6. Women’s Unpaid Care Work: A Case for Better Data & Policy – Economy
Why in the News?
Experts have urged the refinement of India’s Time Use Survey (TUS) to better understand if women’s unpaid care work is driven by choice or societal compulsion.
This call for action highlights the critical policy gap in recognizing and addressing the economic invisibility of women’s domestic labor.
Key Takeaways
- Unpaid care work refers to domestic tasks performed without monetary compensation, such as:
- Cooking, cleaning, and caregiving
- Child, elderly, or sick care
- Water collection, community service
- Globally, women perform 3x more unpaid care work than men.
In India:- Women: ~4.5 hours/day
- Men: ~1.5 hours/day
- Despite its economic and social value, unpaid care work is not included in GDP, leading to:
- Undervaluation of women’s contributions
- Reduced visibility in labor market statistics
Impact on Female Labour Force Participation
| Country | Female Labour Force Participation |
|---|---|
| India | ~23% |
| Bangladesh | ~38% |
| China | ~61% |
- Time poverty caused by unpaid care work:
- Limits access to formal jobs
- Impedes education and skill development
- Reinforces economic dependency
- Lack of institutional support (e.g., crèches, flexible jobs) makes it harder for women to balance care and employment.
Time Use Survey (TUS): Current Limitations
| Concern | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Motivation Blind Spot | Doesn’t explore whether unpaid work is voluntary or forced |
| Health & Aspiration | Ignores impact on physical/emotional health and career goals |
| Policy Disconnection | Poor integration with employment policies or welfare schemes |
Expert Recommendations
| Recommendation | Purpose |
|---|---|
| Refined Survey Tools | Add qualitative questions to TUS to capture motivations and constraints |
| TUS + PLFS Integration | Link with labour force surveys to track employment trends affected by care work |
| Policy-Oriented Insights | Use TUS data to improve programs like PMMVY, Anganwadi, Maternity Benefits |
| GDP Recognition | Create satellite accounts to estimate economic value of unpaid care work |
Himachal Pradesh Connection
- Women in HP’s rural areas carry a significant unpaid burden:
- Water & firewood collection
- Elderly and livestock care
- Lack of recognition in government planning and budgeting
- Improved TUS data can inform better schemes for tribal women, SHGs, and rural employment programs
Exam Connect – Possible Questions
Prelims
1. With reference to India’s Time Use Survey (TUS), consider the following statements:
1.It captures time spent by individuals on paid and unpaid activities.
2.It is conducted annually by the Ministry of Labour and Employment.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: A. 1 only
(TUS is conducted by NSSO under Ministry of Statistics, not Labour Ministry.)
2. What is meant by the term “satellite accounts” in national income accounting?
A. Income earned by ISRO through satellite services
B. A parallel budget for defence services
C. Supplementary system to measure non-market contributions like unpaid care work
D. Secondary fiscal indicators of GDP growth
Answer: C. Supplementary system to measure non-market contributions like unpaid care work
Mains
1. Discuss the significance of recognizing unpaid care work in national economic accounting. How can improved Time Use Surveys contribute to gender equity in India’s labour market?
2. The burden of unpaid care work is a major barrier to increasing female labour force participation in India. Examine this issue and suggest policy interventions to address it.