13th May 2025-Current Affairs

1. Why India Must Get the Caste Census Right – Polity

Why in News?

The Government of India has announced its intent to include caste enumeration in the upcoming decennial Census, marking a significant shift in data-driven governance and social policy formulation.

Key Takeaways

• Caste enumeration is critical for evidence-based policymaking and ensuring social justice.
• Historically, India followed a dual policy—abolition of caste-based discrimination (via constitutional guarantees) alongside affirmative action through reservations.
• However, absence of accurate data on Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and upper castes has weakened the efficacy of welfare policies.
• Past attempts at collecting caste data were inadequate or politically fraught, emphasizing the need for a credible and scientific framework.

Historical Context

• Post-Independence India chose not to include caste enumeration for non-SC/ST communities in the regular census.
• The approach was seen as a way to reduce caste consciousness, but it created gaps in socio-economic understanding.
• This led to poor targeting of welfare schemes and inadequate representation of backward communities.

Legal and Constitutional Backing

• 73rd and 74th Amendments to the Constitution empower Panchayati Raj and Urban Local Bodies and mandate caste-based data for reservation in local governance.
• Affirmative action (Article 15(4), Article 16(4)) is grounded in identifying backward classes, which is difficult without reliable data.

Case Study: Bihar Caste Survey (2022)

• Bihar conducted a comprehensive caste-based survey independently.
• Key features:
  • Used a vetted list of castes.
  • Involved structured data collection methodology.
  • Was seen as a transparent and credible model.
• Demonstrates that state-led enumeration is feasible and can serve as a template for national rollout.

Proposed Framework for Caste Census

To ensure credibility, the following steps are recommended:

1. Amend the Census Act, 1948 – to explicitly permit caste enumeration.
2. Standardized questionnaire – avoid subjective answers and confusion.
3. Enumerator training – for accuracy and sensitivity.
4. Pilot surveys – to identify potential flaws and test methodology.
5. Data anonymization and transparency – to prevent misuse.

Significance of a Caste Census

• Policy Precision: Helps fine-tune reservations and welfare benefits.
• Social Justice: Enables inclusion of underrepresented communities.
• Economic Planning: Reveals caste-based economic disparities.
• National Integration: Promotes fairness and equality through informed governance.

Challenges and Concerns

• Politicization: Caste data can be exploited for electoral gains.
• Data Complexity: Multiple sub-castes and regional variations complicate classification.
• Resistance from Upper Castes/OBC elites: Concerns about redistribution of benefits.

Conclusion

India has consistently collected data on Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) since 1951. Extending this to OBCs and upper castes is both necessary and practical. The delayed 2021 Census offers a chance to address decades of data deficiency, which is crucial for fulfilling the Constitutional promise of social justice.

Summary

• What? – Government’s plan to include caste enumeration in the Census.
• Why? – To enable better targeting of policies and uphold social justice.
• How? – By using a legally sound, transparent, and data-driven framework.
• Significance? – Enables accurate reservation policies, economic planning, and inclusive governance.
• Model? – Bihar’s 2022 caste survey serves as a workable example.

Exam Connect – Possible Questions

Prelims

1. Which of the following Constitutional Amendments mandate caste-based data for reservations in local governance?
   a) 42nd and 44th Amendments
   b) 61st and 86th Amendments
   c) 73rd and 74th Amendments
   d) 97th and 101st Amendments
   Answer: c)
   
   
2. Which of the following statements is true regarding the Census in India?
   a) The Census is conducted every 15 years.
   b) Caste enumeration has always been part of the decennial census.
   c) The Census Act, 1948 governs the conduct of the Indian Census.
   d) The first Census in India was conducted post-independence.
   Answer: c)
   
   
3. Which state recently conducted a comprehensive caste survey in 2022?
   a) Uttar Pradesh
   b) Tamil Nadu
   c) Bihar
   d) Kerala
   Answer: c)

Mains

1. Discuss the significance of caste enumeration in the Indian census with reference to social justice and policy planning. (10/15 marks)
2. Examine the constitutional and legal justifications for conducting a caste census in India. Also, analyze the potential challenges associated with its implementation. (15 marks)
3. Evaluate the Bihar caste survey of 2022 as a model for national caste enumeration. What lessons can be drawn for future policy design? (10/15 marks)

2. Supreme Court Upholds the “Right to Know” – Polity

Why in News?

The Supreme Court of India recently overturned a Delhi High Court order that had directed the Wikimedia Foundation to remove a user-generated page and related discussions.
This ruling is a landmark affirmation of the “Right to Know” as a fundamental right under the Constitution.

Key Takeaways

• The Right to Know is intrinsically linked to:
  • Article 19(1)(a) – Freedom of Speech and Expression
  • Article 21 – Right to Life and Personal Liberty
• This right enables:
  • Public participation in democracy
  • Access to justice
  • Accountability of public authorities
• The Court emphasized that open discussions, including critiques of judicial proceedings, are essential for democracy and do not automatically amount to contempt of court.

Constitutional Basis

Article 19(1)(a) – Freedom of Speech and Expression

• Empowers citizens to express ideas, opinions, and dissent.
• Also includes the right to receive information—particularly about:
  • Governance
  • Public decisions
  • Court proceedings

Key Point: The Right to Know is not just about expression, but also about access to information necessary for informed expression.

Article 21 – Right to Life and Personal Liberty

• Interpreted broadly by the judiciary to include various substantive rights, such as:
  • Right to live with dignity
  • Right to livelihood
  • Right to privacy
  • Right to information
  • Right to clean environment and shelter
• Menaka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978):
  • Expanded the interpretation of Article 21 to include procedural fairness and substantive freedoms.
  • Recognized that liberty includes the ability to access information necessary to live as a free and dignified individual.

Interpretation and Importance of the “Right to Know”

• Helps build an informed citizenry.
• Ensures transparency and accountability in governance and the judiciary.
• Strengthens public discourse—a cornerstone of democracy.
• Allows constructive criticism of institutions, fostering reform and responsiveness.

Example: Public scrutiny of court decisions on issues like bail, electoral disqualifications, or constitutional amendments can strengthen public trust and institutional integrity.

Judicial Approach in This Case

• Supreme Court’s Position:
  • Criticism or discussion of judicial decisions is protected speech.
  • Such discussions are essential for a vibrant democracy and do not constitute contempt unless they are malicious or scandalous.
  • Courts should not use power to censor dissenting opinions unless it directly threatens the integrity of judicial institutions.

Broader Implications

• Affirms digital rights – As this case involved online platforms like Wikipedia, it also strengthens the right to information in the digital age.
• Balances free expression with judicial dignity – Encourages responsible yet open dialogue about court rulings and governance.
• Could influence future cases involving censorship, defamation, or digital content takedown.

Summary

• The Supreme Court ruling upholds the Right to Know as a critical component of Articles 19(1)(a) and 21.
• This right empowers citizens to engage in public discourse, ensure transparency, and hold institutions accountable.
• Open discussion of judicial decisions is a protected democratic practice, not contempt.
• The case reaffirms the constitutional commitment to free, informed, and participatory democracy.

Exam Connect – Possible Questions

Prelims

1. Which of the following Articles of the Indian Constitution are directly associated with the “Right to Know”?
   a) Article 14 and 15
   b) Article 16 and 32
   c) Article 19(1)(a) and Article 21
   d) Article 20 and 22
   Answer: c)
   
   
2. The Menaka Gandhi case (1978) is associated with the expansion of which Fundamental Right?
   a) Right to Equality
   b) Right to Freedom of Religion
   c) Right to Life and Personal Liberty
   d) Right to Education
   Answer: c)
   
   
3. Which of the following statements is true regarding the Right to Know?
   a) It is explicitly mentioned in Article 19.
   b) It only applies to court proceedings.
   c) It is an implied right derived from Article 19(1)(a) and Article 21.
   d) It is applicable only during emergencies.
   Answer: c)

Mains

1. The Right to Know is indispensable to democracy and governance. Discuss its constitutional basis and recent judicial interpretations. (10/15 marks)
2. Critically evaluate the role of the judiciary in balancing the Right to Know with concerns of contempt and institutional dignity. (15 marks)
3. “An informed citizenry is the backbone of a functioning democracy.” In light of this statement, explain the significance of the Supreme Court’s recent judgment related to Wikimedia. (10/15 marks)

3. India’s TFR Trends and Demographic Shifts – Indian Society

Why in News?

The Sample Registration System (SRS) 2021 report, released by the Registrar General of India (RGI), shows that India’s Total Fertility Rate (TFR) remains at 2.0, same as in 2020.
This marks a continuation of the trend toward population stabilization, with significant social, economic, and policy implications.

What is Total Fertility Rate (TFR)?

• Definition: The Total Fertility Rate is the average number of children a woman is expected to bear during her reproductive years (typically ages 15–49).
• Replacement-Level Fertility:
  • TFR of 2.1 is considered necessary to maintain a stable population (i.e., to replace the parents without population growth or decline, assuming no migration).
• India’s current TFR of 2.0 is below the replacement level, suggesting a slowdown in population growth.

Key Findings from SRS 2021

National Level

• TFR (India): 2.0 (same as 2020)
• Indicates that India is nearing population stabilization

State-Level Variations

• Highest TFR:
  • Bihar – 3.0
• Lowest TFR:
  • Delhi and West Bengal – 1.4
• Below Replacement Level (1.5):
  • Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Maharashtra, Punjab
• At National Average (2.0):
  • Gujarat, Haryana
• At Replacement Level (2.1):
  • Assam

Key Demographic Shifts (1971–2021)

• Working-age population (15–59) is increasing – suggests a demographic dividend.
• Elderly population is rising – signals need for geriatric healthcare, pensions, and social care.
• Kerala has the highest elderly population at 14.4%.

Changing Marriage Patterns

• Mean Age at Marriage (Women):
  • 1990: 19.3 years
  • 2021: 22.5 years
• Impact:
  • Delayed marriages reduce childbearing years → lower fertility
  • Reflects increasing education, urbanization, and women’s empowerment

Policy Implications

Positive Aspects

• Population stabilization supports sustainable development.
• Opportunity for demographic dividend if jobs and infrastructure are in place.
• Reduced pressure on resources, education, and employment generation.

Challenges

• Aging population → higher demand for:
  • Geriatric care
  • Social security systems
  • Pensions and elderly housing
• State-level imbalance in fertility may lead to:
  • Migration pressure
  • Regional disparities in workforce availability
• Census delay hampers planning and real-time policy formulation.
• Gender Imbalance concerns in some regions due to declining fertility and patriarchal norms.

Government Initiatives & Response

• Finance Minister announced a high-power committee to address demographic challenges.
• Need for:
  • Strengthening employment opportunities
  • Expanding healthcare infrastructure
  • Investing in elderly care
  • Gender-sensitive policies to tackle skewed sex ratios

Summary

• India’s TFR remains at 2.0, below the replacement level.
• Significant state-level variation exists in fertility rates.
• The working-age population is at a peak, offering a demographic dividend window.
• Rising elderly population and delayed Census call for urgent policy responses.
• A stable TFR is both a demographic success and a social planning challenge.

Exam Connect – Possible Questions

Prelims

1. What is the replacement-level Total Fertility Rate (TFR) in India?
   a) 1.8
   b) 2.0
   c) 2.1
   d) 2.3
   Answer: c)
   
   
2. Which Indian state reported the highest TFR in 2021, according to the SRS report?
   a) Uttar Pradesh
   b) Bihar
   c) Madhya Pradesh
   d) Rajasthan
   Answer: b)
   
   
3. Which of the following best defines the Total Fertility Rate (TFR)?
   a) Number of children born in a year
   b) Number of children per household
   c) Average number of children a woman is expected to have in her lifetime
   d) Number of children per 1000 people
   Answer: c)

Mains

1. India’s declining Total Fertility Rate marks a demographic transition. Examine the implications of this shift for social and economic policy planning. (10/15 marks)
2. Discuss how variations in TFR across Indian states affect equitable development and inter-state migration. Suggest policy interventions. (15 marks)
3. India’s demographic dividend is time-bound. Evaluate the steps needed to convert this demographic potential into economic advantage. (10/15 marks)

4. Achievement of SDG Health Targets in India – Governance

Why in News?

According to the Sample Registration System (SRS) Report 2021, the states of Kerala, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu have achieved the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in the areas of:

• Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)
• Under-Five Mortality Rate (U5MR)
• Neonatal Mortality Rate (NMR)

Relevant SDGs – SDG 3: Health and Well-Being

Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.

Key Targets:

• Target 3.1: Reduce MMR to below 70 per 100,000 live births by 2030.
• Target 3.2: End preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years:
  • Reduce U5MR to ≤25 per 1,000 live births
  • Reduce NMR to ≤12 per 1,000 live births

State-Level Achievements

States Achieving MMR Target (<70):

• Kerala – 20
• Maharashtra – 38
• Tamil Nadu – 49

States/UTs Achieving U5MR Target (≤25):

• Kerala – 8
• Tamil Nadu – 14
• Delhi, Jammu & Kashmir, West Bengal, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh

States/UTs Achieving NMR Target (≤12):

• Kerala – 4
• Tamil Nadu – 9

National Health Trends (2014–2021)

Important Definitions

• MMR (Maternal Mortality Rate): Number of maternal deaths per 100,000 live births.
• U5MR (Under-Five Mortality Rate): Number of deaths of children under 5 per 1,000 live births.
• NMR (Neonatal Mortality Rate): Deaths within the first 28 days of life per 1,000 live births.
• IMR (Infant Mortality Rate): Deaths of infants under 1 year per 1,000 live births.
• TFR (Total Fertility Rate): Average number of children a woman is expected to have during her lifetime.

Flagship Program: Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY)

• Launched: 2005 under National Rural Health Mission (NRHM)
• Objective: Reduce maternal and neonatal mortality by promoting institutional deliveries.
• Target Group: Pregnant women, particularly Below Poverty Line (BPL) and Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe (SC/ST) women.
• Incentives: Conditional cash transfers for women delivering in government or accredited health facilities.

Common Misconception:

• JSY does NOT include direct objectives related to care of sick infants up to one year of age — that is covered under other schemes like RBSK (Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram).

Summary

• Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu are leading in maternal and child health outcomes.
• India has seen significant national progress, particularly in reducing MMR, IMR, and improving sex ratio at birth.
• These achievements reflect effective public health systems, institutional delivery promotion, and state-level policy commitment.
• Continued focus is required on lagging states and for sustaining gains.

Exam Connect – Possible Questions

Prelims

1. Which of the following targets is part of SDG 3 regarding child health?

a) Reduce TFR to 1.5
b) Reduce U5MR to 20 per 1,000 live births
c) Reduce NMR to 25 per 1,000 live births
d) Increase institutional delivery rate to 100%
Answer: b)

2. Which Indian state has achieved all three SDG health targets: MMR, U5MR, and NMR?

a) Punjab
b) Kerala
c) Gujarat
d) Assam
Answer: b)

3. With reference to Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY), which of the following statements are correct?

1. It is a safe motherhood intervention of the State Health Departments.
2. Its objective is to reduce maternal and neonatal mortality among poor pregnant women.
3. It aims to promote institutional delivery among poor pregnant women.
4. Its objective includes providing public health facilities to sick infants up to one year of age.

Answer: (c) Only three
(Statement 4 is incorrect — that falls under other programs like RBSK.)

Mains

1. Discuss the progress made by India in achieving SDG 3 targets related to maternal and child health. What challenges remain in lagging states? (10/15 marks)
2. Kerala, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu have excelled in maternal and child health indicators. Examine the role of state-level health policies and institutional mechanisms in achieving SDG targets. (15 marks)
3. The Janani Suraksha Yojana has been instrumental in reducing maternal mortality in India. Critically evaluate its effectiveness and suggest improvements. (10 marks)

5. Chenab River – Geographical and Strategic Importance – Geography

Why in News?

India recently opened multiple gates of the Baglihar Hydroelectric Power Project Dam, located on the Chenab River in Ramban (Jammu & Kashmir).
This was done to manage rising water levels, highlighting the river’s importance for hydropower and flood control.

Origin and Course of the Chenab River

• Source: Formed by the confluence of Chandra and Bhaga rivers at Tandi, in the Lahaul-Spiti district, Himachal Pradesh.
• Other names in origin:
  • Chandra River: Originates near Baralacha La Pass.
  • Bhaga River: Originates near Suraj Tal Lake.
• Course:
  1. Flows northwest through Himachal Pradesh.
  2. Enters Jammu & Kashmir, traverses through Kishtwar, Doda, Ramban, Reasi, and Jammu.
  3. Enters Pakistan, where it joins the Jhelum River near Trimmu.
  4. Finally merges with the Sutlej River, a tributary of the Indus River.

Direction of Flow:

• Initially northwest, then southwest into Pakistan.

Key Physical Features

• Total Length: ~974 km (605 miles)
• Largest river in Himachal Pradesh in terms of water volume.
• Flows between:
  • Siwalik Hills (south)
  • Lesser Himalayas (north)

Major Tributaries

Hydropower Projects on the Chenab

• Baglihar Dam (J&K)
• Salal Project (J&K)
• Dulhasti Project (J&K)
• Pakal Dul Project
• These projects are critical for energy security and regional development in Jammu & Kashmir.

Geopolitical Significance – Indus Waters Treaty (1960)

• Between India and Pakistan, brokered by the World Bank.
• Allocates the waters of the eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) to India, and the western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab) to Pakistan.
• India can use the waters of western rivers (including Chenab) for:
  • Non-consumptive use like hydropower, irrigation, and navigation.
  • But must not alter the flow significantly.

Ecological and Economic Importance

• Supports agriculture through irrigation canals in both India and Pakistan.
• Sustains biodiversity, particularly in Himalayan ecosystems.
• Enables hydroelectric power generation in remote hilly regions.
• Critical for flood management during monsoons.
• Major contributor to the Indus River System, which is the lifeline of Punjab and Sindh regions in Pakistan.

Summary

• The Chenab River originates from Chandra and Bhaga rivers in Himachal Pradesh.
• Flows through Jammu & Kashmir into Pakistan, where it joins the Indus River system.
• Hosts important hydroelectric projects like Baglihar.
• Waters are governed by the Indus Waters Treaty.
• Plays a vital role in ecology, economy, diplomacy, and water security in the subcontinent.

Exam Connect – Possible Questions

Prelims

1. The Chenab River is formed by the confluence of which two rivers?

a) Jhelum and Ravi
b) Beas and Sutlej
c) Chandra and Bhaga
d) Bhaga and Parvati
Answer: c)

2. The Chenab River ultimately merges with which river before joining the Indus?

a) Ravi
b) Sutlej
c) Jhelum
d) Beas
Answer: b)

3. Which of the following statements about the Indus Waters Treaty is correct?

a) It grants India exclusive use of the Chenab River.
b) It divides the rivers into eastern and western groups.
c) It allows India to construct storage dams on the Indus River.
d) It is mediated by the United Nations.
Answer: b)

Mains

1. Discuss the strategic and ecological importance of the Chenab River for both India and Pakistan. (10/15 marks)
2. Explain how the hydrological features of the Chenab River make it suitable for hydroelectric power generation in Jammu & Kashmir. (10 marks)
3. The Indus Waters Treaty continues to be a cornerstone of India-Pakistan water relations. Evaluate its effectiveness in the context of recent developments related to the Chenab River. (15 marks)

6. Great Nicobar Island – Ecological and Strategic Significance – Environment

Why in News?

The Andaman and Nicobar Administration has initiated steps under the Great Nicobar Holistic Development Project, including a call for financial bids to conduct a Social Impact Assessment (SIA) for land acquisition needed to build a new arterial road.

Geographical Features

• Location:
  • Southernmost island in the Nicobar group
  • Lies in the Ten Degree Channel, separating it from the Andaman Islands
• Area: Approximately 1,044 sq. km
• Landscape:
  • Over 85% of the island is covered in dense tropical rainforest
  • Has more than 100 km of pristine beaches
• Southernmost Point of India:
  • Indira Point
  • Less than 150 km from Indonesia
• Highest Point:
  • Mount Thullier – ~2,105 ft (642 m)

Major Rivers on the Island

• Galathea River
• Alexandra River
• Dagmar River

These rivers support freshwater biodiversity and help sustain local forest ecosystems.

Ecological Significance

Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve

• Recognized by UNESCO
• Contains two national parks:
  • Campbell Bay National Park
  • Galathea National Park
• A crucial part of India’s efforts to conserve tropical biodiversity and unique island ecosystems.

Flora

• Around 650 species of plants, including:
  • Angiosperms, ferns, gymnosperms, bryophytes, lichens
• Notable rare/endemic species:
  • Cyathea albosetacea (tree fern)
  • Phalaenopsis speciosa (orchid)

Fauna

• Many endemic and endangered species, including:
  • Mammals (11 species):
    • Crab-eating Macaque
    • Nicobar Tree Shrew
    • Dugong (marine mammal)
  • Birds (32 species):
    • Nicobar Megapode
    • Serpent Eagle
  • Reptiles (7 species):
    • Saltwater Crocodile
    • Reticulated Python
  • Amphibians (4 species)
  • Marine Life:
    • Coral reefs, turtles (e.g., Olive Ridley, Leatherback), and reef fish

Cultural and Indigenous Heritage

Indigenous Tribes:

• Shompens:
  • Semi-nomadic and one of the least contacted tribes in the world
• Nicobarese:
  • Recognized Scheduled Tribe
  • Settled community engaged in agriculture and fishing

These communities are protected under The Andaman and Nicobar Protection of Aboriginal Tribes Regulation (ANPATR), 1956.

Strategic and Developmental Importance

• Indira Point’s proximity to the Strait of Malacca gives the island geostrategic value.
• Great Nicobar Holistic Development Project:
  • Envisions port development, road connectivity, airport, and logistics hub
  • Faces environmental and tribal welfare concerns

Environmental Concerns

• Development projects may lead to:
  • Deforestation
  • Loss of biodiversity
  • Tribal displacement
  • Impact on coastal and marine ecosystems

Summary

• Great Nicobar Island is India’s southernmost island, rich in biodiversity, tribal heritage, and strategic relevance.
• The island features dense rainforests, unique flora and fauna, and is part of the UNESCO-designated Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve.
• Current development plans, while economically and strategically motivated, raise significant ecological and social concerns.

Exam Connect – Possible Questions

Prelims

1. Which of the following statements about Great Nicobar Island is correct?

a) It is India’s northernmost island.
b) It lies north of the Ten Degree Channel.
c) It is home to the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve.
d) It is separated from Sri Lanka by the Palk Strait.
Answer: c)

2. Which of the following species is endemic to Great Nicobar Island?

a) Asiatic Lion
b) Nicobar Megapode
c) Indian Pangolin
d) Black-necked Crane
Answer: b)

3. Which of the following pairs is correctly matched?

Correct Answer: Mount Thullier – Highest point on Great Nicobar Island
Answer: a)

Mains

1. Examine the ecological and cultural significance of Great Nicobar Island. What are the implications of the Holistic Development Project on its fragile ecosystem? (15 marks)
2. Discuss the challenges in balancing strategic infrastructure development with environmental conservation in the context of Great Nicobar Island. (10/15 marks)
3. Highlight the biodiversity richness of the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve. Why is it considered a priority area for conservation? (10 marks)

7. Self-Defence in International Law & India’s Application – International Relations

Why in News?

Following the Pahalgam massacre (26 civilian deaths), India launched precision strikes under Operation Sindoor, citing a right to self-defence. Subsequently, India and Pakistan agreed to halt all military actions, drawing global attention to the legal basis for self-defence in international law.

UN Framework on Use of Force

Article 2(4) of the UN Charter

• General Prohibition: States must not use force against the territorial integrity or political independence of another state.

Article 51 of the UN Charter

• Recognizes the inherent right of individual or collective self-defence if an armed attack occurs against a UN Member State.
• States must report any self-defensive measures to the UN Security Council immediately.

Conditions for Lawful Self-Defence

1. Necessity: Force must be necessary to repel an armed attack.
2. Proportionality: Response must be proportional to the scale of the attack.
3. Notification: Must inform the UNSC promptly.

In India’s case (May 7, 2025 missile strikes), 13 of 15 UNSC members were briefed on May 8, satisfying the reporting requirement.

ICJ Case Law: Nicaragua v. United States (1986)

• ICJ Definition of “Armed Attack”: The most serious form of use of force, such as:
  • Cross-border armed raids
  • Bombings
  • Attacks by state-sponsored non-state actors
• This case clarified that mere support to insurgents does not amount to armed attack, unless force is directly used.

Emerging Doctrine: “Unwilling or Unable”

Definition:

A controversial but increasingly cited doctrine allowing a state to use force in self-defence against non-state actors located in another country if:

• The host state is unwilling or unable to neutralize the threat.

Applications:

• U.S. operations:
  • 2011: Osama bin Laden raid in Pakistan
  • 2014: Strikes on ISIS in Syria

Criticism:

• Opposed by Russia, China, Mexico: Argue it violates state sovereignty and UN Charter principles.

India’s Evolving Stance

• India has not explicitly endorsed the doctrine, but recent actions reflect an implicit reliance on it.
• At the UNSC Arria Formula meeting (Feb 2021), India outlined 3 conditions to justify force against non-state actors:
  1. Repeated attacks by the actor.
  2. The host state is unwilling to act.
  3. The host state actively supports or sponsors the group.

Unclear whether these are cumulative or independent criteria.

In the 2025 context:

• India accused Pakistan of being a safe haven for terrorists.
• Precision strikes = “measured response”.
• Reflects application of self-defence and possibly the “unwilling or unable” doctrine.

Legal and Ethical Debate

Summary

• Use of force in self-defence is recognized in Article 51 of the UN Charter.
• Nicaragua v. U.S. defined key thresholds.
• “Unwilling or Unable” doctrine is emerging but not formally codified.
• India’s strikes post-Pahalgam massacre align with self-defence principles, but raise questions about evolving norms and regional stability.

Exam Connect – Possible Questions

Prelims

1. Which Article of the UN Charter recognizes the right to self-defence?

a) Article 2(4)
b) Article 33
c) Article 51
d) Article 41
Answer: c)

2. In the Nicaragua v. U.S. (1986) case, the International Court of Justice ruled that:

a) Any use of force is justified as self-defence
b) Armed support to rebels is equivalent to an armed attack
c) Only direct force constitutes an armed attack
d) Pre-emptive strikes are lawful under UN Charter
Answer: c)

3. The “Unwilling or Unable” doctrine relates to:

a) Economic retaliation in trade disputes
b) Use of force against cyber attacks
c) Use of self-defence against non-state actors in another state
d) Invoking state immunity in international arbitration
Answer: c)

Mains

1. Discuss the legal framework governing the right to self-defence under international law. Evaluate India’s application of this right in the context of the Pahalgam incident. (10/15 marks)
2. The “Unwilling or Unable” doctrine challenges the traditional notion of state sovereignty. Critically examine its legitimacy and implications. (15 marks)
3. India’s position on counter-terrorism strikes has evolved to reflect new security threats. Analyse this evolution with reference to international legal norms. (10/15 marks)

8. Digital Banking Units (DBUs) in India – Economy

Why in News?

In October 2022, 75 Digital Banking Units (DBUs) were launched across remote and underserved districts to mark India’s 75th year of independence. However, despite the ambitious vision, the initiative has struggled to scale up due to several systemic and logistical challenges.

What are Digital Banking Units (DBUs)?

Defined by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) as:

• Fixed-location, brick-and-mortar banking outlets.
• Designed to deliver digital banking services with self-service and assisted support modes.
• Operated by scheduled commercial banks (except Regional Rural Banks), without prior approval from the RBI.

Objectives of DBUs

1. Expand access to digital banking in remote and rural areas.
2. Promote financial inclusion and digital financial literacy.
3. Reduce dependency on physical banking infrastructure by leveraging technology-driven banking.
4. Support India’s vision of a Digital Economy.

Services Offered by DBUs

DBUs are required to provide minimum standard digital services, including:

• Opening savings and current accounts
• Accepting fixed and recurring deposits
• Issuing digital banking kits
• Facilitating digital loans
• Offering credit and debit cards
• Providing access to UPI, mobile banking, net banking, etc.

Challenges Hindering DBU Expansion

1. Location-based Constraints

• Banks were assigned specific locations for setup, often in low footfall or underdeveloped areas.
• Led to poor business viability and low user engagement.

2. Tight Timelines

• Banks were given strict deadlines to operationalize DBUs post-announcement.
• Resulted in incomplete infrastructure, staffing issues, and limited service offerings at launch.

3. High Initial and Operational Costs

• Infrastructure setup, digital security, hardware, and power backup add to fixed costs.
• Unjustified ROI (return on investment) in sparsely populated areas makes DBUs financially unsustainable for many banks.

4. Digital Literacy Gaps

• Target regions often lack awareness and capability to use digital services independently.
• Undermines the self-service model of DBUs.

5. Overlap with Existing Channels

• DBU offerings often duplicate services available through:
  • Bank branches
  • Business Correspondents
  • Mobile banking
• Raises the question of whether DBUs add unique value.

Analysis

Way Forward

1. Reassess Location Strategy – Choose areas with better population density and digital readiness.
2. Leverage Hybrid Models – Combine mobile banking vans, Business Correspondents, and digital kiosks.
3. Invest in Digital Literacy – Through awareness campaigns, especially for rural women and elderly users.
4. Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) – Bring in fintech companies to innovate and reduce operational costs.
5. Outcome-based Targets – Move from input-based to impact-based performance metrics.

Summary

• DBUs were introduced to promote accessible digital banking across India, especially in underserved regions.
• While conceptually promising, they have struggled due to poor planning, high costs, low usage, and limited scalability.
• For DBUs to succeed, India must address infrastructural gaps, focus on digital inclusion, and rethink deployment strategies.

Exam Connect – Possible Questions

Prelims

1. What is a Digital Banking Unit (DBU)?

a) A virtual banking app
b) A mobile ATM
c) A fixed-location outlet providing digital banking services
d) A central server for UPI transactions
Answer: c)

2. Which of the following is true about DBUs in India?

1. They require prior RBI approval for setup.
2. They can offer services like opening bank accounts and issuing debit cards.
3. They are accessible only via mobile apps.
4. They aim to improve digital banking access in remote areas.

Correct Code:

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 4 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) All of the above
Answer: b)

Mains

1. Digital Banking Units (DBUs) were introduced to transform India’s banking outreach. Discuss the reasons for their limited success and suggest policy-level corrections. (10/15 marks)
2. Assess the role of Digital Banking Units in advancing financial inclusion. How can technology and policy be aligned to optimize their effectiveness? (15 marks)
3. Critically examine the relevance of DBUs in the age of mobile banking and fintech innovation. (10 marks)